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India, officially the Republic of India, is a South Asian nation, the seventh-largest by area and the most populous country since 2023. Bordered by the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal, it shares land borders with countries like Pakistan, China, and Bangladesh. Since independence in 1947, India has grown into a federal republic with a parliamentary system. It boasts a diverse heritage, from the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation to the cultural influences of the Mughal Empire and the British colonial era. Today, India is a fast-growing economy and IT hub, while facing challenges like gender inequality and air pollution. Its rich biodiversity is protected through extensive conservation efforts.

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Etymology

Main article: Names for India

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2009), the name "India" is derived from the Classical Latin India, a reference to South Asia and an uncertain region to its east. In turn "India" derived successively from Hellenistic Greek India (Ἰνδία), Ancient Greek Indos (Ἰνδός), Old Persian Hindush (an eastern province of the Achaemenid Empire), and ultimately its cognate, the Sanskrit Sindhu, or 'river'—specifically the Indus River, and by extension its well-settled southern basin.5657 The Ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, 'the people of the Indus'.58

The term Bharat (Bhārat; pronounced [ˈbʱaːɾət] ⓘ), mentioned in both Indian epic poetry and the Constitution of India,5960 is used in its variations by many Indian languages. A modern rendering of the historical name Bharatavarsha, which applied originally to North India,6162 Bharat gained increased currency from the mid-19th century as a native name for India.6364

Hindustan ([ɦɪndʊˈstaːn] ⓘ) is a Middle Persian name for India that became popular by the 13th century,65 and was used widely since the era of the Mughal Empire. The meaning of Hindustan has varied, referring to a region encompassing the northern Indian subcontinent (present-day northern India and Pakistan) or to India in its near entirety.666768

History

Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India

Ancient India

By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or Homo sapiens, had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa.697071 The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago.72 After 6500 BCE, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan.73 These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,7475 the first urban culture in South Asia,76 which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India.77 Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.78

During the period 2000–500 BCE, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the Iron Age ones.79 The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism,80 were composed during this period,81 and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.82 Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.83 The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this period.84 On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.85 In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,86 as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.87

In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas.8889 The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.90 Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.919293 In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal,94 and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Maurya Empire.95 The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.9697 The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.9899

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and Southeast Asia.100101 In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.102103 By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.104105 Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.106 This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.107 Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.108

Medieval India

Main article: Medieval India

The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.109 When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.110 When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.111 When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.112 No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region.113 During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.114 The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.115

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.116 They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.117 Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.118 Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.119 By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in Southeast Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.120 Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; Southeast Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.121

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.122 The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.123124 By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.125126 The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.127 Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,128 and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.129

Early modern India

In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,130 fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.131 The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices132133 and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,134 leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.135 Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.136 The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture137 and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,138 caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.139 The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,140 resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.141 Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.142 Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.143 As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.144

By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.145146 The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.147148149150 Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.151 India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials. Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.152 By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.153

Modern India

Main article: History of India (1947–present)

Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe.154155156157 However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.158159 Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.160161 In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.162163164165

The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.166 There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines,167 and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.168 There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.169 The railway network provided critical famine relief,170 notably reduced the cost of moving goods,171 and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.172

After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served,173 a new period began. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mahatma Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol.174 During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.175 The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.176

Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.177 Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1980s and the collaboration with Soviet Union for technical know-how,178 has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies,179 and increased its geopolitical clout. Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban;180 by religious and caste-related violence;181 by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;182 and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.183 It has unresolved territorial disputes with China184 and with Pakistan.185 India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.186

Geography

Main article: Geography of India

India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian tectonic plate, a part of the Indo-Australian Plate.187 India's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.188 Simultaneously, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate.189 These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's mantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas.190 Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment191 and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.192 The original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient Aravalli range, which extends from the Delhi Ridge in a southwesterly direction. To the west lies the Thar Desert, the eastern spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.193194195

The remaining Indian Plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.196 To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats;197 the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude198 and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.199

India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.200 According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudflats or marshy shores.201 Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.202 Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient, caused by long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course changes.203204 Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;205 and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.206 Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.207 India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.208

Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons.209 The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.210211 The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.212 Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.213 Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and 2018.214 Climate change in India is often thought to be the cause. The retreat of Himalayan glaciers has adversely affected the flow rate of the major Himalayan rivers, including the Ganges and the Brahmaputra.215 According to some current projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.216

Biodiversity

Main articles: Forestry in India and Wildlife of India

India is a megadiverse country, a term employed for 17 countries that display high biological diversity and contain many species exclusively indigenous, or endemic, to them.217 India is the habitat for 8.6% of all mammals, 13.7% of bird species, 7.9% of reptile species, 6% of amphibian species, 12.2% of fish species, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.218219 Fully a third of Indian plant species are endemic.220 India also contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity hotspots,221 or regions that display significant habitat loss in the presence of high endemism.222223

India's most dense forests, such as the tropical moist forest of the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India, occupy approximately 3% of its land area.224225 Moderately dense forest, whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India's land area.226227 It predominates in the temperate coniferous forest of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India.228 India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the Deccan Plateau, immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain, now turned into rich agricultural land by irrigation, its features no longer visible.229 Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the astringent Azadirachta indica, or neem, which is widely used in rural Indian herbal medicine,230 and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or peepul,231 which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro,232 and under which the Buddha is recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment.233

Many Indian species have descended from those of Gondwana, the southern supercontinent from which India separated more than 100 million years ago.234 India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.235 Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographic passes flanking the Himalayas.236 This had the effect of lowering endemism among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.237 Among endemics are the vulnerable238 hooded leaf monkey239 and the threatened Beddome's toad240241 of the Western Ghats.

India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.242 These include the endangered Bengal tiger and the Ganges river dolphin. Critically endangered species include the gharial, a crocodilian; the great Indian bustard; and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.243 Before they were extensively used for agriculture and cleared for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were mingled at intervals with open grasslands that were grazed by large herds of blackbuck preyed on by the Asiatic cheetah; the blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is now severely endangered in India, and the cheetah is extinct.244 The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act245 and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.246 India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and eighteen biosphere reserves,247 four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; its eighty-nine wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.248

Politics and government

Politics

Main article: Politics of India

India is a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system.249 It has six recognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and over 50 regional parties.250 Congress is considered the ideological centre in Indian political culture,251 whereas the BJP is right-wing.252253254 From 1950 to the late 1980s, Congress held a majority in the India's parliament. Afterwards, it increasingly shared power with the BJP,255 as well as with powerful regional parties, which forced multi-party coalition governments at the centre.256

In the Republic of India's general elections in 1951, 1957, and 1962, Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded in 1966, by Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi, who led the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the state of emergency Indira Gandhi had declared in 1975, Congress was voted out of power in 1977; Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted two years; Morarji Desai and Charan Singh served as prime ministers. After Congress was returned to power in 1980, Indira Gandhi was assassinated and succeeded by Rajiv Gandhi, who won easily in the elections later that year. In the 1989 elections a National Front coalition, led by the Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won, lasting just under two years, and V.P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar serving as prime ministers.257 In the 1991 Indian general election, Congress, as the largest single party, formed a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.258

After the 1996 Indian general election, the BJP formed a government briefly; it was followed by United Front coalitions, which depended on external political support. Two prime ministers served during this period: H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral. In 1998, the BJP formed a coalition—the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition government to complete a five-year term.259 In the 2004 Indian general elections, no party won an absolute majority. Still, the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from India's communist parties.260 Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.261 In the 2014 general election, the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win an absolute majority.262 In the 2019 general election, the BJP regained an absolute majority. In the 2024 general election, a BJP-led NDA coalition formed the government. Narendra Modi, a former chief minister of Gujarat, is serving as the prime minister of India in his third term since May 26, 2014.263

Government

Main articles: Government of India and Constitution of India

India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India. Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the union and the states. India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states,264 has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.265266

The Government of India comprises three branches: the Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary.267 The President of India is the ceremonial head of state,268 who is elected indirectly for a five-year term by an electoral college comprising members of national and state legislatures.269270 The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power.271 Appointed by the president,272 the prime minister is supported by the party or political alliance with a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.273 The executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the Union Council of Ministers—with the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.274 In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. Civil servants act as permanent executives and all decisions of the executive are implemented by them.275

The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament. Operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system, it comprises an upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and a lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of the People).276 The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body of 245 members who serve staggered six-year terms with elections every 2 years.277 Most are elected indirectly by the state and union territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national population.278 The Lok Sabha's 543 members are elected directly by popular vote among citizens aged at least 18;279 they represent single-member constituencies for five-year terms.280 Several seats from each state are reserved for candidates from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population within that state.281

India has a three-tier unitary independent judiciary282 comprising the supreme court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 25 high courts, and a large number of trial courts.283 The supreme court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre and has appellate jurisdiction over the high courts.284 It has the power to both strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution285 and invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional.286

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of India

See also: Political integration of India

India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories.287 All states, as well as the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments following the Westminster system. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the central government through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.288 There are over a quarter of a million local government bodies at city, town, block, district and village levels.289

States

  1. Andhra Pradesh
  2. Arunachal Pradesh
  3. Assam
  4. Bihar
  5. Chhattisgarh
  6. Goa
  7. Gujarat
  8. Haryana
  9. Himachal Pradesh
  10. Jharkhand
  11. Karnataka
  12. Kerala
  13. Madhya Pradesh
  14. Maharashtra
  15. Manipur
  16. Meghalaya
  17. Mizoram
  18. Nagaland
  19. Odisha
  20. Punjab
  21. Rajasthan
  22. Sikkim
  23. Tamil Nadu
  24. Telangana
  25. Tripura
  26. Uttar Pradesh
  27. Uttarakhand
  28. West Bengal

Union territories

  1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
  2. Chandigarh
  3. Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
  4. Jammu and Kashmir
  5. Ladakh
  6. Lakshadweep
  7. National Capital Territory of Delhi
  8. Puducherry

Foreign, economic, and strategic relations

Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forces

India became a republic in 1950, remaining a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.290291 India strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia in the 1950s; it played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.292 After cordial relations initially, India went to war with China in 1962. It was widely thought to have been humiliated.293 Another military conflict followed in 1967 in which India successfully repelled a Chinese attack.294 India has had uneasy relations with its western neighbour, Pakistan. The two countries went to war in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir. In contrast, the 1971 war followed India's support for the independence of Bangladesh.295 After the 1965 war with Pakistan, India began to pursue close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.296 India has played a key role in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization. The nation has supplied 100,000 military and police personnel in 35 UN peacekeeping operations.

China's nuclear test of 1964 and threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war caused India to produce nuclear weapons.297 India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out additional underground testing in 1998. India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.298 India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "Minimum Credible Deterrence" doctrine.299300

Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and military cooperation with the United States and the European Union.301 In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce; India subsequently signed co-operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia,302 France,303 the United Kingdom,304 and Canada.305

The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; with 1.45 million active troops, they compose the world's second-largest military. It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, the Indian Air Force, and the Indian Coast Guard.306 The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83% of GDP.307 Defence expenditure was pegged at US$70.12 billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% than previous fiscal year.308309 India is the world's second-largest arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of the total global arms imports.310 Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.311

Economy

Main article: Economy of India

According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2024 was nominally worth $3.94 trillion; it was the fifth-largest economy by market exchange rates and is, at around $15.0 trillion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).312 With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012,313 India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.314 However, due to its low GDP per capita—which ranks 136th in the world in nominal per capita income and 125th in per capita income adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP)—the vast majority of Indians fall into the low-income group.315316 Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy;317 since then, it has moved increasingly towards a free-market system318319 by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.320 India has been a member of World Trade Organization since 1 January 1995.321

The 522-million-worker Indian labour force is the world's second largest, as of 2017.322 The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. India's foreign exchange remittances of US$100 billion in 2022,323 highest in the world, were contributed to its economy by 32 million Indians working in foreign countries.324 In 2006, the share of external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.325 In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.7%;326 In 2021, India was the world's ninth-largest importer and the sixteenth-largest exporter.327 Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.328 India was the world's second-largest textile exporter after China in the 2013 calendar year.329

Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years before 2007,330 India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.331 Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030.332 In 2023, India's consumer market was the world's fifth largest.333 India's nominal GDP per capita increased steadily from US$308 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,380 in 2010, to an estimated US$2,731 in 2024. It is expected to grow to US$3,264 by 2026.334

Industries

The Indian automotive industry, the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010,335 and exports by 36% during 2008–2009.336 In 2022, India became the world's third-largest vehicle market after China and the United States, surpassing Japan.337 At the end of 2011, the Indian IT industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.338

The pharmaceutical industry in India includes 3,000 pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 manufacturing units; India is the world's third-largest pharmaceutical producer, largest producer of generic medicines and supply up to 50–60% of global vaccines demand, these all contribute up to US$24.44 billions in exports and India's local pharmaceutical market is estimated up to US$42 billion.339340 India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world.341342 The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from ₹204.4 billion (Indian rupees) to ₹235.24 billion (US$3.94 billion at June 2013 exchange rates).343

Energy

Main articles: Energy in India and Energy policy of India

India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is renewable.344 The country's usage of coal is a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions by India but its renewable energy is competing strongly.345 India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This equates to about 2.5 tons of carbon dioxide per person per year, which is half the world average.346347 Increasing access to electricity and clean cooking with liquefied petroleum gas have been priorities for energy in India.348

Socio-economic challenges

Despite economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges. In 2006, India contained the largest number of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of US$1.25 per day.349 The proportion decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.350 Under the World Bank's later revised poverty line, it was 21%-22.5 in 2011.351352353 In 2019, the estimates had gone down to 10.2%.354 In 2014, 30.7% of India's children under the age of five were underweight.355 According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015, 15% of the population was undernourished.356357 The Midday Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates.358

A 2018 Walk Free Foundation report estimated that nearly 8 million people in India were living in different forms of modern slavery, such as bonded labour, child labour, human trafficking, and forced begging.359 According to the 2011 census, there were 10.1 million child labourers in the country, a decline of 2.6 million from 12.6 million in 2001.360

Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.361 Corruption in India is perceived to have decreased. According to the Corruption Perceptions Index, India ranked 78th out of 180 countries in 2018, an improvement from 85th in 2014.362363

Demographics, languages, and religion

Main articles: Demographics of India, Languages of India, and Religion in India

See also: South Asian ethnic groups

With an estimated 1,428,627,663 residents in 2023, India is the world's most populous country.364 1,210,193,422 residents were reported in the 2011 provisional census report.365 Its population grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011,366 compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).367 The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.368 The median age was 28.7 in 2020.369 The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361 million people.370 Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.371

The life expectancy in India is at 70 years—71.5 years for women, 68.7 years for men.372 There are around 93 physicians per 100,000 people.373 Migration from rural to urban areas has been an important dynamic in India's recent history. The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.374 Yet, in 2001, over 70% still lived in rural areas.375376 The level of urbanisation increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 Census to 31.16% in the 2011 Census. The slowing down of the overall population growth rate was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.377 According to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus urban agglomerations in India; among them Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad, in decreasing order by population.378 The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.379 The rural-urban literacy gap, which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement in the rural literacy rate is twice that of urban areas.380 Kerala is the most literate state with 93.91% literacy; while Bihar the least with 63.82%.381

Among speakers of the Indian languages, 74% speak Indo-Aryan languages, the easternmost branch of the Indo-European languages; 24% speak Dravidian languages, indigenous to South Asia and spoken widely before the spread of Indo-Aryan languages and 2% speak Austroasiatic languages or the Sino-Tibetan languages. India has no national language.382 Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government.383384 English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";385 it is important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22 "scheduled languages".

The 2011 census reported the religion in India with the largest number of followers was Hinduism (79.80% of the population), followed by Islam (14.23%); the remaining were Christianity (2.30%), Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism (0.36%) and others386 (0.9%).387 India has the third-largest Muslim population—the largest for a non-Muslim majority country.388389

Culture

Main article: Culture of India

Visual art

Main article: Indian art

India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of Eurasia, especially in the first millennium, when Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.390 Thousands of seals from the Indus Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few with human figures. The "Pashupati" seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.391392 After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.393394 Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India Mauryan art is the first imperial movement.395396397 In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.398 Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly flowing forms expressing prana ("breath" or life-force).399400 This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.401402

Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi, Sarnath and Amaravati,403 or is rock cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora. Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.404405 In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.406 Gupta art, at its peak c. 300 CE – c. 500 CE, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the Elephanta Caves.407408 Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after c. 800 CE, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.409 But in the South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period of great achievement; the large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of India.410411

Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta Caves are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly accomplishment in Gupta times.412413 Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the style of these was used in larger paintings.414 The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.415416 The style spread to Hindu courts, especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.417418 As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.419420 In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.421422

Society

The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found on the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis, or "castes".423 India abolished untouchability in 1950 with the adoption of the constitution and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.424

Multi-generational patrilineal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.425 An overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family elders.426 Marriage is thought to be for life,427 and the divorce rate is extremely low,428 with less than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce.429 Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.430 Female infanticide in India, and lately female foeticide, have created skewed gender ratios; the number of missing women in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million in the 50 years ending in 2014, faster than the population growth during the same period.431 According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.432 Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice remains commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a patriarchal society.433 The payment of dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across class lines.434 Deaths resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry laws.435

Education

Main articles: Education in India, Literacy in India, and History of education in the Indian subcontinent

In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for men and 65% for women. This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. In 1921 the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891 they were 5%, 9% and 1%,436437 According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.438

The education system of India is the world's second-largest.439 India has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges440 and 1.5 million schools.441 In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development.442443

Clothing

Main article: Clothing in India

From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn traditional dress in India was draped.444 For women it took the form of a sari, a single piece of cloth many yards long.445 The sari was traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder.446 In its modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian petticoat, and tucked in the waist band for more secure fastening. It is also commonly worn with an Indian blouse, or choli, which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—covering the midriff and obscuring the upper body's contours.447 For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the dhoti, has served as a lower-body garment.448

The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established at first by the Delhi sultanate (c. 1300 CE) and then continued by the Mughal Empire (c. 1525 CE).449 Among the garments introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the shalwars and pyjamas, both styles of trousers, and the tunics kurta and kameez.450 In southern India, the traditional draped garments were to see much longer continuous use.451

Salwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.452 The pants can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the bias, in which case they are called churidars. When they are ordinarily wide at the waist and their bottoms are hemmed but not cuffed, they are called pyjamas. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic,453 its side seams left open below the waistline.454 The kurta is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as chikan; and typically falls to either just above or just below the wearer's knees.455

In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions.456 The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans.457 In office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round.458 For weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle- and upper classes often wear bandgala, or short Nehru jackets, with pants, with the groom and his groomsmen sporting sherwanis and churidars.459 The dhoti, once the universal garment of Hindu males, the wearing of which in the homespun and handwoven khadi allowed Gandhi to bring Indian nationalism to the millions,460 is seldom seen in the cities.461

Cuisine

Main article: Indian cuisine

The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked plainly and complemented with flavourful savoury dishes.462 The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; chapati, a thin unleavened bread;463 the idli, a steamed breakfast cake; or dosa, a griddled pancake.464 The savoury dishes might include lentils, pulses and vegetables commonly spiced with ginger and garlic, but also with a combination of spices that may include coriander, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamon and others.465 They might also include poultry, fish, or meat dishes. In some instances, the ingredients may be mixed during the cooking process.466

A platter, or thali, used for eating usually has a central place reserved for the cooked cereal, and peripheral ones for the flavourful accompaniments. The cereal and its accompaniments are eaten simultaneously rather than a piecemeal manner. This is accomplished by mixing—for example of rice and lentils—or folding, wrapping, scooping or dipping—such as chapati and cooked vegetables.467

India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.468 The appearance of ahimsa, or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many religious orders early in Indian history, especially Upanishadic Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, is thought to have contributed to the predominance of vegetarianism among a large segment of India's Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, the Hindi-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains.469 Although meat is eaten widely in India, the proportional consumption of meat in the overall diet is low.470 Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption.471

The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the last millennium occurred during the Mughal Empire. Dishes such as the pilaf,472 developed in the Abbasid caliphate,473 and cooking techniques such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into northern India from regions to its northwest.474 To the simple yogurt marinade of Persia, onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began to be added in India.475 Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with the sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking technique, to produce what has today become biryani,476 a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.477 In the food served in Indian restaurants worldwide the diversity of Indian food has been partially concealed by the dominance of Punjabi cuisine. The popularity of tandoori chicken—cooked in the tandoor oven, which had traditionally been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region, especially among Muslims, but which is originally from Central Asia—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large part by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab who had been displaced by the 1947 partition.478

Sports and recreation

Main article: Sport in India

See also: Indian physical culture

Several traditional sports—such as kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani, gilli-danda, hopscotch and martial arts such as Kalarippayattu and marma adi—remain popular. Chess is commonly held to have originated in India as chaturaṅga;479 in recent years, there has been a rise in the number of Indian grandmasters,480 and world champions.481 Parcheesi is derived from Pachisi, another traditional Indian pastime, which in early modern times was played on a giant marble court by Mughal emperor Akbar the Great.482

Cricket is the most popular sport in India.483 India has won two Cricket World Cups, the 1983 edition and the 2011 edition. India has won eight field hockey gold medals in the summer Olympics.484

See also

Notes

Bibliography

Overview

Etymology

History

Geography

Biodiversity

Politics

Foreign relations and military

Economy

Demographics

Art

Culture

Government

General information

21°N 78°E / 21°N 78°E / 21; 78

References

  1. ISO: Bhārat Gaṇarājya /wiki/ISO_15919 ↩

  2. The Essential Desk Reference, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 76, ISBN 978-0-19-512873-4 "Official name: Republic of India."; John Da Graça (2017), Heads of State and Government, London: Macmillan, p. 421, ISBN 978-1-349-65771-1 "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)"; Graham Rhind (2017), Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries, Taylor & Francis, p. 302, ISBN 978-1-351-93326-1 "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat."; Bradnock, Robert W. (2015), The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs, Routledge, p. 108, ISBN 978-1-317-40511-5 "Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya"; Penguin Compact Atlas of the World, Penguin, 2012, p. 140, ISBN 978-0-7566-9859-1 "Official name: Republic of India"; Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Merriam-Webster, 1997, pp. 515–516, ISBN 978-0-87779-546-9 "Officially, Republic of India"; Complete Atlas of the World: The Definitive View of the Earth (3rd ed.), DK Publishing, 2016, p. 54, ISBN 978-1-4654-5528-4 "Official name: Republic of India"; Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013, CQ Press, 2013, p. 726, ISBN 978-1-4522-9937-2 978-0-19-512873-4978-1-349-65771-1978-1-351-93326-1978-1-317-40511-5978-0-7566-9859-1978-0-87779-546-9978-1-4654-5528-4978-1-4522-9937-2 ↩

  3. James, K. S.; Sekher, T. V. (2024), "India's Population Change: Critical Issues and Prospects.", in James, K. S.; Sekher, T. V. (eds.), India Population Report (1st ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–18, doi:10.1017/9781009318846.003, ISBN 9781009318860 9781009318860 ↩

  4. Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 327, "Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India's achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world's new nations.". - Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2012), A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-02649-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC ↩

  5. Stein, Burton (2012), Arnold, David (ed.), A History of India, The Blackwell History of the World Series (2nd ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, One of these is the idea of India as 'the world's largest democracy', but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India's founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty. /wiki/Burton_Stein ↩

  6. Fisher 2018, pp. 184–185: "Since 1947, India's internal disputes over its national identity, while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy." - Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/9781316276044, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2, LCCN 2018021693, S2CID 134229667 https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ ↩

  7. The Government of India also regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of Kashmir to be part of India.[25] However, this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. /wiki/Government_of_India ↩

  8. Petraglia & Allchin 2007, p. 10, "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73 and 55 ka." - Petraglia, Michael D.; Allchin, Bridget (2007), "Human evolution and culture change in the Indian subcontinent", in Michael Petraglia; Bridget Allchin (eds.), The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics, Springer Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4020-5562-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA6 ↩

  9. Dyson 2018, p. 1, "Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present." - Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ ↩

  10. Fisher 2018, p. 23, "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago." - Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/9781316276044, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2, LCCN 2018021693, S2CID 134229667 https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ ↩

  11. Dyson 2018, p. 28 - Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ ↩

  12. (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 4–5;(b) Fisher 2018, p. 33 - Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ ↩

  13. Lowe 2015, pp. 1–2, "It consists of 1,028 hymns (sūktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India." - Lowe, John J. (2015), Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 ↩

  14. (a) Witzel 2003, pp. 68–70, "It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); [...] The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalised early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. [...] The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE.";(b) Doniger 2014, pp. xviii, 10, "A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda [...] Hindu texts began with the Rig Veda ('Knowledge of Verses'), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE; the first of the three Vedas, it is the earliest extant text composed in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India.";(c) Ludden 2014, p. 19, "In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence 'panch' and 'ab') draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva).";(d) Dyson 2018, pp. 14–15, "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an 'Aryan invasion' it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. [...] It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as 'Arya'—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence."; (e) Robb 2011, pp. 46–, "The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas." - Witzel, Michael (2003), "Vedas and Upanișads", in Gavin D. Flood (ed.), The Blackwell companion to Hinduism, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-631-21535-6, retrieved 15 March 2012 https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0YYY8C ↩

  15. (a) Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2020), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, pp. 2, 4, ISBN 978-0-19-063339-4, The RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).;(b) Flood, Gavin (2020), "Introduction", in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-0-19-105322-1, I take the term 'Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).;(c) Michaels, Axel (2017), Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 86–97, ISBN 978-0-19-100709-5, Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras (initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86)(d) Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, p. 35, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0, It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism. 978-0-19-063339-4978-0-19-105322-1978-0-19-100709-5978-0-521-43878-0 ↩

  16. Dyson 2018, pp. 16, 25 - Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ ↩

  17. Dyson 2018, p. 16 - Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ ↩

  18. Fisher 2018, p. 59 - Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/9781316276044, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2, LCCN 2018021693, S2CID 134229667 https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ ↩

  19. (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 16–17;(b) Fisher 2018, p. 67;(c) Robb 2011, pp. 56–57;(d) Ludden 2014, pp. 29–30. - Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ ↩

  20. (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 28–29; (b) Glenn Van Brummelen (2014), "Arithmetic", in Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, pp. 46–48, ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1 978-1-135-45932-1 ↩

  21. (a) Dyson 2018, p. 20;(b) Stein 2010, p. 90;(c) Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999), "Women in South Asia", in Barbara N. Ramusack; Sharon L. Sievers (eds.), Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History, Indiana University Press, pp. 27–29, ISBN 0-253-21267-7 0-253-21267-7 ↩

  22. "A Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the caste system as he could observe it. According to this evidence the treatment meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas was very similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would contradict assertions that this rigid form of the caste system emerged in India only as a reaction to the Islamic conquest."[40] ↩

  23. Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 93. - Kulke, H.; Rothermund, D. (2004), A History of India, 4th, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC ↩

  24. Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 17 - Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC ↩

  25. (a) Ludden 2014, p. 54; (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 78–79; (c) Fisher 2018, p. 76 - Ludden, D. (2014), India and South Asia: A Short History (2nd, revised ed.), Oneworld Publications, ISBN 978-1-85168-936-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ ↩

  26. (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 68–70;(b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 19, 24 - Ludden, D. (2014), India and South Asia: A Short History (2nd, revised ed.), Oneworld Publications, ISBN 978-1-85168-936-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ ↩

  27. (a) Dyson 2018, p. 48; (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 52 - Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ ↩

  28. Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 74 - Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC ↩

  29. Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 267 - Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC ↩

  30. Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 152 - Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC ↩

  31. Fisher 2018, p. 106 - Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/9781316276044, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2, LCCN 2018021693, S2CID 134229667 https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ ↩

  32. Asher, Catherine B. (1992), Architecture of Mughal India, New Cambridge History of India series, Cambridge University Press, p. 250, ISBN 0521267285, Just as the symbolic content of Mughal architecture peaks under Shah Jahan, so, too, the style favored by this ruler introduces a new classicism in form and medium. Favored is white marble or burnished stucco surfaces that emulate marble. While marble had been used sparingly by Akbar and Jahangir, it dominates Shah Jahan's palace pavilions, mosques, and the most important tomb he constructed, the Taj Mahal. The marble on secular structures, most notably palace pavilions, often is elaborately inlaid with multi-colored precious stones and at times ornately carved. By contrast, the marble surface of religious buildings, especially mosques, remains considerably more austere, suggesting a division between secular and sacred arts not seen previously. Even enormous public structures, such as his Jami mosque of Shahjahanabad, while faced primarily with red sandstone, were profusely inlaid with white marble. 0521267285 ↩

  33. (a) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 289 (b) Fisher 2018, p. 120 - Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC ↩

  34. Taylor, Miles (2016), "The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George", in Aldrish, Robert; McCreery, Cindy (eds.), Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires, Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39, ISBN 978-1-5261-0088-7 978-1-5261-0088-7 ↩

  35. Peers 2013, p. 76. - Peers, D. M. (2013), India Under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-317-88286-2, retrieved 13 August 2019 https://books.google.com/books?id=dyQuAgAAQBAJ ↩

  36. Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.; Bary, William Theodore De (1988), "Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates", Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan, Columbia University Press, p. 85, ISBN 978-0-231-06414-9 978-0-231-06414-9 ↩

  37. Marshall, P. J. (2001), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 179, ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7, The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress. 978-0-521-00254-7 ↩

  38. Chiriyankandath, James (2016), Parties and Political Change in South Asia, Routledge, p. 2, ISBN 978-1-317-58620-3, South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947 978-1-317-58620-3 ↩

  39. Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 202: "The year 1919 was a watershed in the modern history of India. ... By its end the Montagu–Chelmsford reforms... were enacted. ... The year, however, also brought the repressive Rowlatt bills and the catastrophe of the Amritsar massacre. For many, if not most, Indians the reforms had become a poisoned chalice. They chose instead a novel course of political action, that of ‘non-violent non-cooperation’, and a new leader, Mohandas K. Gandhi, only recently returned from twenty years in South Africa. Gandhi would endure as a lasting symbol of moral leadership for the entire world community." - Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2012), A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-02649-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC ↩

  40. Stein 2010, p. 289: "Gandhi was the leading genius of the later and ultimately successful campaign for India's independence" - Stein, B. (2010), Arnold, D. (ed.), A History of India (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC ↩

  41. Fisher 2018, pp. 173–174: "The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations ... The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India. ... Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development... Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious 'communal' lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India." - Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/9781316276044, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2, LCCN 2018021693, S2CID 134229667 https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ ↩

  42. Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (2013), "Introduction: Concepts and Questions", in Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (eds.), Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-48010-9, Joya Chatterji describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of 'overseas Indians'; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries. 978-0-415-48010-9 ↩

  43. Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4, archived from the original on 13 December 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they not only partitioned the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. ... Indeed for many the Indian subcontinent's division in August 1947 is seen as a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis 978-0-521-85661-4 ↩

  44. Khan, Yasmin (2017) [2007], The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (2nd ed.), New Haven and London: Yale University Press, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-300-23032-1, South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority live in the countryside, ploughing the land as landless peasants or sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India 978-0-300-23032-1 ↩

  45. (a) Copland 2001, pp. 71–78;(b) Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 222. - Copland, I. (2001), India 1885–1947: The Unmaking of an Empire, Longman, ISBN 978-0-582-38173-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw1uAAAAMAAJ ↩

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