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Jainism
Religion that originated in the Indian subcontinent

Jainism, an ancient Indian religion, is guided by twenty-four tirthankaras, with the last being Mahavira around the 6th century BCE. Central to its philosophy is the concept of the soul’s purity and liberation, achieved through self realization and following the three pillars: ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Jain monks uphold vows including truth and not stealing. With around 4.5 million followers mainly in India and communities abroad, Jainism celebrates festivals like Paryushana and Mahavir Janma Kalyanak. Its motto, Parasparopagraho jīvānām, means souls help one another.

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Beliefs and philosophy

Main article: Jain philosophy

Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of substance dualism,4 and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism.5

Dravya (Ontological facts)

Main article: Dravya

Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit.6 Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls (jīva), non-sentient substance or matter (pudgala), the principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa), and time (kāla).78 The last five are united as the ajiva (non-living).9 Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed.10

Tattva (Soteriological facts)

Main article: Tattva (Jainism)

Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas: the sentient (jiva or living), the insentient (ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul (Āsrava, which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul (Bandha),1112 the stoppage of karmic particles (Saṃvara), the wiping away of past karmic particles (Nirjarā), and the liberation (Moksha). Śvētāmbaras add two further tattvas, namely good karma (Punya) and bad karma (Paapa).131415 The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as "faith in the tattvas".16 The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.1718

Pramana (Epistemological facts)

Main article: Jain epistemology

Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (pramana). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana) and testimony (sabda or the word of scriptures).1920 These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra, Parvacanasara, Nandi and Anuyogadvarini.2122 Some Jain texts add analogy (upamana) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions.23

In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – mati jñāna (sensory knowledge), śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge), avadhi jñāna (clairvoyance), manah prayāya Jñāna (telepathy) and kevala jnana (omniscience).24 According to the Jain text Tattvartha sūtra, the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge.25

Soul and karma

Main article: Karma in Jainism

According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven.26 It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities (Guṇa): consciousness (chaitanya, the most important), bliss (sukha) and vibrational energy (virya).27

It further claims the vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul.28 Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body.29 Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas.30 Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth.31

Saṃsāra

Main articles: Saṃsāra (Jainism) and Vitalism (Jainism)

The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul (jiva) is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism.32 Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through Saṃsāra,3334 going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing.35

Harming any life form is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects.3637 Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma.38 It further clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation).3940 It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act.41

Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike the nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism.42 According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone beyond Saṃsāra, is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally.43

Cosmology

Main article: Jain cosmology

Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient.4445 The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from the soul (jiva). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy.46 The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds (urdhva loka, madhya loka, and adho loka).47 Jainism states that Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal;48 the cosmic wheel of time, kālachakra, rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons (ara), and in the first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates.49

Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality).505152 It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī, full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after the sixth ara, the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle.535455

God

Main article: God in Jainism

Jainism is a transtheistic religion,56 holding that the universe was not created, and will exist forever.57 It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.5859 In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism, but similar to Buddhism.60 However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings.6162 The souls who live happily in the body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma.63 It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.64 However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings.6566 The perfect enlightened souls with a body are called Arihants (victors) and perfect souls without a body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves.676869

Salvation, liberation

Main articles: Moksha (Jainism), Ratnatraya, and Gunasthana

Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels:707172 Samyak Darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul (jīva);73 Samyak Gyana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas;74 and Samyak Charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows.75 Jain texts often add samyak tapas (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (moksha).76 The four jewels are called Moksha Marga (the path of liberation).77

Main principles

Non-violence (ahimsa)

Main article: Ahimsa in Jainism

The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.78 It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.79 In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty.8081 Jain texts such as Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.8283 Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.8485

Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.8687 It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".8889

Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.90

The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism.9192939495 The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths.96 Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.9798

Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.99100 According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".101

However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.102103

Many-sided reality (anekāntavāda)

Main article: Anekantavada

The second main principle of Jainism is anekāntavāda,104105 from anekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically "non-oneness" or "not being one") and vada ("doctrine").106107 The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya, "partial expression of the truth".108 According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are syāt, or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".109 It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.110 It suggests that the great error is belief in ekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.111 The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt).112113 These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.114 The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework.115

According to Paul Dundas, in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.116 According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence.117 He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".118 The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.119 Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.120

Non-attachment (aparigraha)

Main article: Aparigraha

The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions.121 For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.122 The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition.123 For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity.124 According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.125

Jain ethics and five vows

Main article: Ethics of Jainism

See also: Yamas § Five Yamas

Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants.126 For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors.127 Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism:

  1. Ahiṃsā, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury":128 The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals).129 This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.130131
  2. Satya, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.132133
  3. Asteya, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.134135 Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.136
  4. Brahmacharya, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.137138
  5. Aparigraha, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.139 Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.140141

Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas.142143 The Sallekhana (or Santhara) vow is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age.144 In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion,145146 This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.147

Practices

Asceticism and monasticism

Main articles: Asceticism and Jain monasticism

Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition.148149150 Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation").151152153

Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts.154 Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).155 Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body.156 Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition.157158 Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul).159 The tirthankaras such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years.160161162

Monastic organization, sangh, has a four-fold order consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday, in autonomous regional Jain congregations.163164165 Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the Dandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.166167168

Food and fasting

Main articles: Jain vegetarianism and Fasting in Jainism

The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.169 Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.170171 Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata.172 Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day.173

Jains fast particularly during festivals.174 This practice is called upavasa, tapasya or vrata,175 and may be practiced according to one's ability.176 Digambaras fast for Dasa-laksana-parvan, eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival,177 mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.178 Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana.179 The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (punya).180 A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.181 Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group.182 Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.183

Meditation

Main article: Jain meditation

Jainism considers meditation (dhyana) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism.184 In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions.185 According to Padmanabh Jaini, Sāmāyika is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata (ritual restraint).186 The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata.187 The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work.188189190 According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".191192

Rituals and worship

Main article: Jain rituals

There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic.193194 The ultimate ritual is sallekhana, a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks.195 The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy.196 The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular.197198

Jains ritually worship numerous deities,199 especially the Jinas. In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved.200 Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha, Neminatha and Rishabhanatha.201 Among the non-tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras.202 The Panch Kalyanaka rituals remember the five life events of the tirthankaras, including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava, Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja.203204

The basic ritual is darsana (seeing) of deva, which includes Jina,205 or other yaksas, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati, Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi).206207208 Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras.209 The worship ritual is called devapuja, and is found in all Jain sub-traditions.210 Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.211

Jain practices include performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of the images.212 Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also called upadhye), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple.213214 More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras.215216

Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual.217218 The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" (panca namaskara) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time.219220 Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of the Rishi-mandala including the tirthankaras.221 The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.222

Festivals

Main article: Jain festivals

The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar.223224 It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras.225 It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time.226 Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras, while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals.227

The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as Samvatsari. Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends.228 Forgiveness is asked by saying "Micchami Dukkadam" or "Khamat khamna" to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together".229

Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.230231 The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar, north of Patna, special events are held by Jains.232 The next day of Dipawali is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of moksha.233 The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date (Kartika Amavasya). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali.234 Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan, similar to those in the Hindu communities.235236

Traditions and sects

Main article: Jain schools and branches

The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas. Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes.237

According to Viśeṣāvaśyaka Bhāṣya, a 5th century CE Śvetāmbara text, they are the original followers which is corroborated by the pattavali of the Kalpa Sutra, and that Digambaras arose 609 years after the death of Mahavira (in about the 1st century CE or 82 AD) because of an arrogant man named Sivabhuti who became a Jain monk in a fit of pique after a fight at home.238239240241 He is accused of starting the Digambara Jain tradition with what Śvetāmbara call as "eight concealments", of rejecting Jain texts preserved by the Śvetāmbara tradition, and misunderstanding the Jain ideology including those related to nuns and clothes.242 The claim of them being the original followers of Jainism is further corroborated by the naked idols excavated from Kankali Tila, but consecrated by Śvetāmbara ascetics whose names match exactly with those mentioned in the pattavali of the Kalpa Sutra.243 According to Jinabhadra Gaṇi, Sivabhuti was the eighth heretic who is regarded as the founder of the Digambara sect.244245246 Another Śvetāmbara work, Nihnavavad,247 also confirms this account. A condition was enforced that since women possess clothes in the Digambara tradition, they are not fit to attain Moksha or liberation.248 This aligns with the current-day Digambara belief regarding women attaining salvation.249 Several well-known scholars such as R. G. Bhandarkar and Professor J. F. Fleet of Cambridge University agree with the Śvetāmbara account more than later Digambara accounts.250251

During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha.252 Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked.253 This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes.254 Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara has ever since rejected. This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism.255256 The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of Kundakunda.257

The earliest mention and description of the schism is in the 5th century CE Śvetāmbara texts. Digambara texts do not mention the schism at least until the 10th century CE.258 Even after a much later mention of the schism, several important Digambara texts differ greatly on the narrative about the Śvetāmbara sect's emergence. Bhadrabāhucaritra by Digambara monk Ratnanandi states that the Śvetāmbara sect emerged after the famine in Magadha. While this is one account of the schism as per the Digambara scriptures, another alternate story is described in Darśanasār, also a Digambara text authored by Digambara monk Devasena states that the Śvetāmbara sect emerged in Vallabhi in Saurashtra 136 years after the death of Vikramaditya (or 50 AD) after a monk named Jinacandra spread the narrative that women could attain omniscience and salvation.259 It is worth mentioning that none of the two accounts from Digambara texts are confirmed and are believed to be much later additions (at least after 10th century CE).260 Pattavalis of both the sects confirm that there did not exist a pupil of Bhadrabāhu who was named Jinacandra.261 On the contrary, such anomalies are not observed in Śvetāmbara texts which describe only one account of the schism i.e., the one about Sahasramalla or Sivabhuti.262263

Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code,264265266 interpretations of teachings,267268 and on Jain history especially concerning the tirthankaras.269270271272273 Their monasticism rules differ,274 as does their iconography.275 Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants,276 where Digambara has mostly had male monks277 and considers males closest to the soul's liberation.278279 The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism280281 and state that the 19th Tirthankara Māllīnātha was female,282 which Digambara rejects.283 Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.284

Several scholars and scriptures of other religions as well as those of their counterpart Śvetāmbara Jains285 criticize Digambara sect's practices of public nudity as well as their belief that women are incapable of attaining spiritual liberation.286287288

Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire (c. 1st century CE).289 Tirthankara represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the Ardhaphalaka (half-clothed) mentioned in texts.290 The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.291 In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism" have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism.292

Scriptures and texts

Main article: Jain literature

Jain canonical scriptures are called Agamas. They are believed to have been verbally transmitted, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts,293 and to have originated from the sermons of the tirthankaras, whereupon the Ganadharas (chief disciples) transmitted them as Śhrut Jnāna (heard knowledge).294295 The spoken scriptural language is believed to be Ardhamagadhi by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.296

The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost,297298 and that Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara Āchāryas recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four anuyoga.299300301 The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.302 The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups or Vedas: history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics.303304

The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the Kalpa Sūtras are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition.305 Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal.306 Both traditions consider his Niryuktis and Samhitas important. The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by Umaswati, the Tattvarthasūtra is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism.307308309 In the Digambara tradition, the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential,310311312 while the oldest being Kasayapahuda and Shatkhandagama attributed to Acharya pushpdanta and Bhutbali. Other important Digambara Jain texts include: Samayasara, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, and Niyamasara.313

Comparison with other religions

Main articles: Buddhism and Jainism and Jainism and Hinduism

All four Dharmic religions, viz., Jainism, Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism, share concepts and doctrines such as karma and rebirth.314315316 They do not believe in eternal heaven or hell or judgment day, and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as ahimsa (non-violence) to be important,317: p. 635  link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (moksha).318319

Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises. All believe in impermanence, but Buddhism incorporates the premise of anatta ("no eternal self or soul"). Hinduism incorporates an eternal unchanging atman ("soul"), while Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing jiva ("soul").320321322 In Jain thought, there are infinite eternal jivas, predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few siddhas (liberated ones).323 Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompass nondualism where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one324325326 Jainism rejected the non-dual concept, stating that if there were only one universal consciousness which was already liberated, the purpose of dharma would be nullified. Additionally, the need and desire for an infinitely blissful consciousness to create the universe would imply a limitation within that consciousness. Jainism also criticized Vedanta's inability to explain how an intangible consciousness could create a material universe, filled with countless living beings who experience suffering.327 Jain scholar Dr. Hukumchand Bharill explains that, according to both Jainism and Vedanta, only consciousness can perceive itself, while the mind and body are incapable of recognizing and experiencing the soul. In Jainism, the soul, in its state of ignorance, mistakenly identifies with the body and consequently experiences suffering. When the soul realizes its true nature, it attains enlightenment, gaining infinite knowledge and bliss. If there were only a singular, universal consciousness, Bharill questions, who attains realization as the consciousness is already liberated, and the mind is incapable of experiencing soul's boundless knowledge-bliss nature.328

While both Hinduism and Jainism believe "soul exists" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and constant (vibhu), but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic. Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and Brahman through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being.329

Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe "soul exists" as a self-evident truth.330331 Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India.332333 Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the Hindu caste system,334335 but later scholars consider this a Western error.336 A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society.337338339340341

Monasticism is similar in all three traditions,342343 with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month monsoon season, and celibacy,344 originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra.345 Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a sangha (monastery) and staying in its premises.346 Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls.347 In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks.348349

Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified,350 and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.351 Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.352 The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honour,353354 while temple complexes such as the Badami cave temples and Khajuraho feature both Hindu and Jain monuments.355356

Fynes (1996) argues that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of plant souls, were transmitted from Western Kshatrapa territories to Mesopotamia and then integrated into Manichaean beliefs.357

Art and architecture

Main article: Jain art

Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends of tirthankara or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture. Yakshas and yakshinis, attendant spirits who guard the tirthankara, are usually shown with them.358 The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum. It is dated approximately to the third century BCE.359 Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the second century BCE.360

Ayagapata is a type of votive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the stupa, dharmacakra and triratna. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century BCE to the third century CE.361362 Samavasarana, a preaching hall of tirthankaras with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.363

The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture.364 Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.365 Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as Panch Kalyanaka, from the life of the tirthankara. Rishabha, the first tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga, the standing position. He is distinguished from other tirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures.366 In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and Indra marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.367 Each of the twenty-four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara.368

Temples

Main article: Jain temple

A Jain temple, a Derasar or Basadi, is a place of worship.369 Temples contain tirthankara images, some fixed, others moveable.370 These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall.371 One of the images is marked as the moolnayak (primary deity).372 A manastambha (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples.373 Temple construction is considered a meritorious act.374

Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (Vidisha) and Pataini temple in Madhya Pradesh, the Ellora in Maharashtra, the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near Mount Abu, Rajasthan.375376 Chaumukha temple in Ranakpur is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings.377 According to Jain texts, Shikharji is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain Tīrthaṅkaras along with many other monks attained moksha (died without being reborn, with their soul in Siddhashila). The Shikharji site in northeastern Jharkhand is therefore a revered pilgrimage site.378379 The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect.380 Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the Jain community.381 The Jain complex, Khajuraho and Jain Narayana temple are part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.382383 Shravanabelagola, Saavira Kambada Basadi or 1000 pillars and Brahma Jinalaya are important Jain centers in Karnataka.384385386 In and around Madurai, there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures.387

The second–first century BCE Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of tirthanakars and deities with inscriptions including the Elephant Cave inscription.388389 Jain cave temples at Badami, Mangi-Tungi and the Ellora Caves are considered important.390 The Sittanavasal Cave temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.391 The eighth century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India.392

Pilgrimages

Main article: Tirtha (Jainism)

Jain Tirtha (pilgrim) sites are divided into the following categories:393

Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built temples in locations such as Nagarparkar, Sindh (Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition".394

Statues and sculptures

Main article: Jain sculpture

Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in lotus position or kayotsarga, along with Arihant, Bahubali, and protector deities like Ambika.395 Quadruple images are also popular. Tirthankar idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented.396

A monolithic, 18-metre (59-foot) statue of Bahubali, Gommateshvara, built in 981 CE by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by The Times of India.397 The 33-metre (108-foot) tall Statue of Ahiṃsā (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the Nashik district in 2015.398 Idols are often made in Ashtadhatu (literally "eight metals"), namely Akota Bronze, brass, gold, silver, stone monoliths, rock cut, and precious stones.399400

Symbols

Main article: Jain symbols

Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the swastika, Om, and the Ashtamangala. In Jainism, Om is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "Arihant, Ashiri, Acharya, Upajjhaya, Muni".401402 The Ashtamangala is a set of eight auspicious symbols:403 in the Digambara tradition, these are chatra, dhvaja, kalasha, fly-whisk, mirror, chair, hand fan and vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, Srivatsa, Nandavarta, Vardhmanaka (food vessel), Bhadrasana (seat), Kalasha (pot), Darpan (mirror) and pair of fish.404

The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes ahimsā. The wheel represents the dharmachakra, which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of ahimsā. The five colours of the Jain flag represent the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi and the five vows.405 The swastika's four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans.406407 The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection.408

In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism.409 It depicts the three lokas, heaven, the human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes Siddhashila, a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika and the symbol of Ahiṃsā are included, with the Jain mantra Parasparopagraho Jīvānām410 from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's Tattvarthasūtra, meaning "souls render service to one another".411

History

Main article: History of Jainism

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Jainism.

Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four tirthankaras and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the Indus River Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two tirthankaras, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira (c. 599 – c. 527 BCE) are historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha. According to Jain texts, the 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Krishna.412

Ancient

See also: Timeline of Jainism and Śramaṇa

Jainism is an ancient Indian religion of obscure origins.413414415 Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first tirthankara Rishabhanatha as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle.416 It is one of the Śramaṇa traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas,417418 and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed.419420421

The first twenty two tirthankaras are not considered by non-Jain scholars as historical figures.422423 The 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, was likely a historical being,424425 dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE;426 historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE.427 Parshvanatha may have founded a proto-Jain ascetic community which subsequently got revived and reformed by Mahavira.428429

Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth or 5th century BCE.430431 The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha;432 later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.433434 Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.435

Kings Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460–440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty were patrons of Jainism.436 Jain tradition states that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan Empire and grandfather of Ashoka, became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu in the later part of his life.437438 Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.439440

The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the Niganthas (Jains).441 Tirthankara statues date back to the second century BCE.442 Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE. onwards.443 Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara.444 There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.445

Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism.446 In the second half of the first century CE, Hindu kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples.447 King Harshavardhana of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.448 The Pallava King Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism.449 His work Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics.450 The Yadava dynasty built many temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE.451452453 King Āma of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.454 Mularaja (10th century CE), the founder of the Chalukya dynasty, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain.455 During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jain Kalachuri king Bijjala, converted many Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use.456 The Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152 CE) became a Vaishnavite under the influence of Ramanuja, and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka.457

Medieval

Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of Delhi Sultanate remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate. Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi.458 One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, Alp Khan permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.459460 Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars.461

The Mughal emperors in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under Humayun (1540–1556), Akbar (1556–1605), Jahangir (1605–1627) and even Aurangzeb (1658–1707).462 Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains. Babur (1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in Gwalior.463 In 1567, Akbar ravaged the fort of Chittor. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor.464 Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under Jahangir, Shah Jahan and most notably under Aurangzeb.465

The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.466

Colonial era

A Gujarati Jain scholar, Virchand Gandhi, represented Jainism at the first World Parliament of Religions in 1893, held in America during the Chicago World's Fair. He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism.467468

Shrimad Rajchandra, a mystic, poet and philosopher from Gujarat is believed to have attained jatismaran gnana (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions.469 He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi.470 Shrimad Rajchandra composed Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra, considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours.471 He expounds on the six fundamental truths of the soul:472

  1. Self (soul) exists
  2. It is permanent and eternal
  3. It is the doer of its own actions
  4. It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions
  5. Liberation exists
  6. There is a path to achieve liberation.

Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion.473474475 Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as Champat Rai Jain defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists.476 Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious.477 These criticisms, states John E. Cort, were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity.478

The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks.479 The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.480 Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the British Raj and prompted their discontinuance.481 The laws were abolished by India after independence.482

Modern era

Main article: Jain communities

Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ji, which means to conquer. In the Jain context, monks have to conquer their senses and karma for liberation. Those who have succeeded are jinas (victors), which means an omniscient person who teaches the path of salvation, and their followers are Jains.483484485 The majority of Jains currently reside in India. With four to five million followers worldwide,486487 Jainism is small compared to major world religions. Jains form 0.37% of India's population, mostly in the states of Maharashtra (1.4 million in 2011,488 31.46% of Indian Jains), Rajasthan (13.97%), Gujarat (13.02%) and Madhya Pradesh (12.74%). Significant Jain populations exist in Karnataka (9.89%), Uttar Pradesh (4.79%), Delhi (3.73%) and Tamil Nadu (2.01%).489 Outside India, Jain communities can be found in most areas hosting large Indian populations, such as Europe, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada,490 Australia and Kenya.491 Jainism also counts non-Indian converts; for example, it is spreading rapidly in Japan, where more than 5,000 families have converted between 2010 and 2020.492

According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) conducted in 2015–16, Jains form the wealthiest community in India.493 According to its 2011 census, they have the country's highest literacy rate (87%) among those aged seven and older, and the most college graduates;494 excluding the retired, Jain literacy in India exceeded 97%. The female to male sex ratio among Jains is .940; among Indians in the 0–6 year age range the ratio was second lowest (870 girls per 1,000 boys), higher only than Sikhs. Jain males have the highest work participation rates in India, while Jain females have the lowest.495

Jainism has been praised for some of its practices and beliefs. Greatly influenced by Shrimad Rajchandra, the leader of the campaign for Indian independence, Mahatma Gandhi stated regarding Jainism:496

No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahiṃsā so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of Ahiṃsā or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahiṃsā.497

Chandanaji became the first Jain woman to receive the title of Acharya in 1987.498

See also

  • Religion portal

Notes

Citations

Sources

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References

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  6. Grimes 1996, pp. 118–119. - Grimes, John (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 0-7914-3068-5 ↩

  7. Grimes 1996, pp. 118–119. - Grimes, John (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 0-7914-3068-5 ↩

  8. Nemicandra & Balbir 2010, p. 1 of Introduction. - Nemicandra, Acarya; Balbir, Nalini (2010), Dravyasamgrha: Exposition of the Six Substances, (in Prakrit and English) Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series (vol-19), Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, ISBN 978-81-88769-30-8 ↩

  9. Grimes 1996, pp. 118–119. - Grimes, John (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 0-7914-3068-5 ↩

  10. Champat Rai Jain 1917, p. 15. - Champat Rai Jain (1917), The Practical Path, The Central Jain Publishing House https://books.google.com/books?id=EscwAQAAMAAJ ↩

  11. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 188–190. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  12. Jaini 1980, pp. 219–228. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  13. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 177–187. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  14. Jaini 1998, p. 151. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  15. Dundas 2002, pp. 96–98. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  16. Jaini 1998, p. 151. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  17. Bailey 2012, p. 108. - Bailey, William (2012), The Theological Universe, Bailey Publishing, PA, ISBN 978-1-312-23861-9 https://books.google.com/books?id=G7_GBgAAQBAJ ↩

  18. Long 2013, pp. 18, 98–100. - Long, Jeffery D. (2013), Jainism: An Introduction, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-0-85771-392-6 ↩

  19. Grimes 1996, p. 238. - Grimes, John (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 0-7914-3068-5 ↩

  20. Soni 2000, pp. 367–377. - Soni, Jayandra (2000), "Basic Jain Epistemology", Philosophy East and West, 50 (3): 367–377, JSTOR 1400179 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400179 ↩

  21. Dundas 2002, pp. 75–76, 131, 229–230. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  22. Soni 2000, pp. 367–377. - Soni, Jayandra (2000), "Basic Jain Epistemology", Philosophy East and West, 50 (3): 367–377, JSTOR 1400179 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400179 ↩

  23. Dundas 2002, pp. 229–230. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  24. S.A. Jain 1992, p. 16. - Jain, S. A. (1992) [First edition 1960], Reality (English Translation of Srimat Pujyapadacharya's Sarvarthasiddhi) (Second ed.), Jwalamalini Trust https://archive.org/details/Reality_JMT ↩

  25. Vijay K. Jain 2011, p. 6. - Jain, Vijay K. (2011), Acharya Umasvami's Tattvarthsūtra (1st ed.), Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-2-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=zLmx9bvtglkC ↩

  26. Jaini 1998, p. 103. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  27. Jaini 1998, pp. 104–106. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  28. Jaini 1998, pp. 104–106. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  29. von Glasenapp 1925, p. 194. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  30. Long 2013, pp. 92–95. - Long, Jeffery D. (2013), Jainism: An Introduction, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-0-85771-392-6 ↩

  31. Dundas 2002, pp. 99–103. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  32. Jaini 1980, p. 226. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  33. Jaini 1980, p. 228. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  34. Jaini 2000, pp. 130–131. - Jaini, Padmanabh S., ed. (2000), Collected Papers On Jain Studies (First ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1691-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=HPggiM7y1aYC ↩

  35. Jaini 1980, pp. 223–225. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  36. Jaini 1980, pp. 224–225. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  37. Sethia 2004, pp. 30–31. - Sethia, Tara (2004), Ahiṃsā, Anekānta and Jainism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-2036-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC ↩

  38. Jaini 1980, pp. 227–228. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  39. Jaini 1980, p. 226. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  40. Dundas 2002, pp. 104–105. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  41. Jaini 1980, p. 225. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  42. Dundas 2002, pp. 104–105. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  43. Jaini 1980, pp. 222–223. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  44. von Glasenapp 1925, p. 241. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  45. Long 2013, pp. 83–85. - Long, Jeffery D. (2013), Jainism: An Introduction, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-0-85771-392-6 ↩

  46. Long 2013, pp. 83–85. - Long, Jeffery D. (2013), Jainism: An Introduction, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-0-85771-392-6 ↩

  47. Natubhai Shah 1998, p. 25. - Shah, Natubhai (1998), Jainism: The World of Conquerors, vol. 2, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-31-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=g120RG8GkHAC ↩

  48. Doniger 1999, p. 551. - Doniger, Wendy, ed. (1999), Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC ↩

  49. Vijay K. Jain 2011, p. 46. - Jain, Vijay K. (2011), Acharya Umasvami's Tattvarthsūtra (1st ed.), Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-2-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=zLmx9bvtglkC ↩

  50. Doniger 1999, p. 551. - Doniger, Wendy, ed. (1999), Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC ↩

  51. Upinder Singh 2016, p. 313. - Singh, Upinder (2016), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education, ISBN 978-93-325-6996-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ ↩

  52. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 271–272. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  53. Dundas 2002, p. 13. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  54. Champat Rai Jain 1929b, p. 124. - Jain, Champat Rai (1929), The Practical Dharma, The Indian Press https://archive.org/details/ThePracticalDharma ↩

  55. Dalal 2010a, p. 27. - Dalal, Roshen (2010a) [2006], The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths, Penguin books], ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC ↩

  56. Zimmer 1953, p. 182. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [1952], Campbell, Joseph (ed.), Philosophies Of India, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6 https://archive.org/details/Philosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer ↩

  57. von Glasenapp 1925, p. 241. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  58. Long 2013, pp. 83–85. - Long, Jeffery D. (2013), Jainism: An Introduction, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-0-85771-392-6 ↩

  59. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 241–242. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  60. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 241–243. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  61. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 247–249, 262–263. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  62. Dundas 2002, pp. 20–21, 34–35, 74, 91, 95–96, 103. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  63. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 262–263. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  64. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 262–263. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  65. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 262–263. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  66. Dundas 2002, pp. 91, 95–96. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  67. Jaini 1980, pp. 222–223. - Jaini, Padmanabh (1980), Doniger, Wendy (ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C ↩

  68. Zimmer 1953, p. 182. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [1952], Campbell, Joseph (ed.), Philosophies Of India, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6 https://archive.org/details/Philosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer ↩

  69. Rankin & Mardia 2013, p. 40. - Rankin, Aidan D.; Mardia, Kantilal (2013), Living Jainism: An Ethical Science, John Hunt Publishing, ISBN 978-1-78099-911-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=bQxZAQAAQBAJ ↩

  70. Vijay K. Jain 2011, p. 6. - Jain, Vijay K. (2011), Acharya Umasvami's Tattvarthsūtra (1st ed.), Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-2-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=zLmx9bvtglkC ↩

  71. Cort 2001a, pp. 6–7. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  72. Fohr 2015, pp. 9–10, 37. - Fohr, Sherry (2015), Jainism: A Guide for the Perplexed, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1-4411-5116-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=HMXuBQAAQBAJ ↩

  73. Jaini 1998, pp. 141–147. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  74. Jaini 1998, pp. 148, 200. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  75. Jaini 1998, pp. 148, 200. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  76. Cort 2001a, p. 7. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  77. Cort 2001a, pp. 6–7. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  78. Dundas 2002, p. 160. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  79. Dundas 2002, p. 160. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  80. Dundas 2002, p. 160. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  81. Markham & Lohr 2009, p. 71. - Markham, Ian S.; Lohr, Christy (2009), A World Religions Reader, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-7109-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=JdNNz1jcN9cC ↩

  82. Price 2010, p. 90. - Price, Joan (2010), Sacred Scriptures of the World Religions: An Introduction, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-0-8264-2354-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=J0eycqQq9U4C ↩

  83. Dundas 2002, pp. 160–162. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  84. Markham & Lohr 2009, p. 71. - Markham, Ian S.; Lohr, Christy (2009), A World Religions Reader, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-7109-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=JdNNz1jcN9cC ↩

  85. Price 2010, p. 90. - Price, Joan (2010), Sacred Scriptures of the World Religions: An Introduction, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-0-8264-2354-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=J0eycqQq9U4C ↩

  86. Price 2010, p. 90. - Price, Joan (2010), Sacred Scriptures of the World Religions: An Introduction, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-0-8264-2354-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=J0eycqQq9U4C ↩

  87. Dundas 2002, pp. 160–162. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  88. Dundas 2002, pp. 160–162. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  89. This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about 250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a negation of the "absolute non-violence" principle, given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form.[65] ↩

  90. Dundas 2002, pp. 160–162. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  91. Dundas 2002, p. 160. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  92. Sundararajan & Mukherji 1997, pp. 392–417. - Sundararajan, K. R.; Mukherji, Bithika, eds. (1997), "20", Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1937-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=UUWIEfAY-mMC ↩

  93. Izawa 2008, pp. 78–81. - Izawa, A. (2008), Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual, vol. 12, Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies, Kokusai Bukkyōgaku Daigakuin Daigaku ↩

  94. Sethia 2004, p. 2. - Sethia, Tara (2004), Ahiṃsā, Anekānta and Jainism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-2036-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC ↩

  95. Winternitz 1993, p. 409. - Winternitz, Moriz (1993), History of Indian Literature: Buddhist & Jain Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0265-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=Lgz1eMhu0JsC ↩

  96. Dundas 2002, pp. 88–89, 257–258. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  97. Taylor 2008, pp. 892–894. - Taylor, Bron (2008), Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1-4411-2278-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=i4mvAwAAQBAJ ↩

  98. Granoff 1992. - Granoff, Phyllis (1992), "The violence of non-violence: a study of some Jain responses to non-Jain religious practices", The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 15 (1) https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8791/2698 ↩

  99. Dundas 2002, pp. 162–163. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  100. Lorenzen 1978, pp. 61–75. - Lorenzen, David N. (1978), "Warrior Ascetics in Indian History", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 98 (1): 61–75, doi:10.2307/600151, JSTOR 600151 https://doi.org/10.2307%2F600151 ↩

  101. Dundas 2002, p. 163. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  102. Dundas 2002, pp. 162–163. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  103. Jain literature, like Buddhist and Hindu literature, has also debated the aspects of violence and non-violence in food creation.[76] ↩

  104. Charitrapragya 2004, pp. 75–79. - Charitrapragya, Samani (2004), Sethia, Tara (ed.), Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jaininsm, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-2036-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC ↩

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  108. Charitrapragya 2004, pp. 75–79. - Charitrapragya, Samani (2004), Sethia, Tara (ed.), Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jaininsm, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-2036-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC ↩

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  111. Schwartz 2018. - Schwartz, William Andrew (2018), The Metaphysics of Paradox: Jainism, Absolute Relativity, and Religious Pluralism, Lexington Books, ISBN 978-1-4985-6392-5, archived from the original on 24 August 2018, retrieved 23 August 2018 https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781498563925/The-Metaphysics-of-Paradox-Jainism-Absolute-Relativity-and-Religious-Pluralism ↩

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  119. Long 2009, pp. 98–106. - Long, Jeffery D. (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-0-85773-656-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=ajAEBAAAQBAJ ↩

  120. Dundas 2002, p. 233. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  121. Natubhai Shah 2004, p. 112. - Shah, Natubhai (2004) [1998], Jainism: The World of Conquerors, vol. I, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1938-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC ↩

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  123. Dundas 2002, pp. 117, 152. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

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  125. Natubhai Shah 2004, pp. 112–113. - Shah, Natubhai (2004) [1998], Jainism: The World of Conquerors, vol. I, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1938-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC ↩

  126. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 228–231. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  127. von Glasenapp 1925, p. 228. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  128. von Glasenapp 1925, p. 228. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  129. von Glasenapp 1925, p. 228. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  130. Shah, Pravin K. (2011). "Five Great Vows (Maha-vratas) of Jainism". Harvard University Literature Center. Archived from the original on 31 December 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2017. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/5greatvows.htm ↩

  131. Vijay K. Jain 2012, p. 33. - Jain, Vijay K. (2012), Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya: Realization of the Pure Self, With Hindi and English Translation, Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-4-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=4iyUu4Fc2-YC ↩

  132. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 228–231. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  133. Shah, Pravin K. (2011). "Five Great Vows (Maha-vratas) of Jainism". Harvard University Literature Center. Archived from the original on 31 December 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2017. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/5greatvows.htm ↩

  134. von Glasenapp 1925, p. 228. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  135. Vijay K. Jain 2012, p. 68. - Jain, Vijay K. (2012), Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya: Realization of the Pure Self, With Hindi and English Translation, Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-4-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=4iyUu4Fc2-YC ↩

  136. von Glasenapp 1925, p. 231. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  137. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 228–231. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  138. Shah, Pravin K. (2011). "Five Great Vows (Maha-vratas) of Jainism". Harvard University Literature Center. Archived from the original on 31 December 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2017. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/5greatvows.htm ↩

  139. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 228–231. - von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 1999), ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC ↩

  140. Natubhai Shah 2004, p. 112. - Shah, Natubhai (2004) [1998], Jainism: The World of Conquerors, vol. I, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1938-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC ↩

  141. Long 2009, p. 109. - Long, Jeffery D. (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-0-85773-656-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=ajAEBAAAQBAJ ↩

  142. Vijay K. Jain 2012, pp. 87–88. - Jain, Vijay K. (2012), Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya: Realization of the Pure Self, With Hindi and English Translation, Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-4-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=4iyUu4Fc2-YC ↩

  143. Tukol 1976, p. 5. - Tukol, Justice T.K. (1976), Sallekhanā is Not Suicide (1st ed.), Ahmedabad: L.D. Institute of Indology https://archive.org/details/SallekhanaIsNotSuicide ↩

  144. Dundas 2002, pp. 179–180. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  145. Jaini 2000, p. 16. - Jaini, Padmanabh S., ed. (2000), Collected Papers On Jain Studies (First ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1691-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=HPggiM7y1aYC ↩

  146. Tukol 1976, p. 7. - Tukol, Justice T.K. (1976), Sallekhanā is Not Suicide (1st ed.), Ahmedabad: L.D. Institute of Indology https://archive.org/details/SallekhanaIsNotSuicide ↩

  147. Williams 1991, pp. 166–167. - Williams, Robert (1991), Jain Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0775-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=LLKcrIJ6oscC ↩

  148. Cort 2001a, pp. 118–122. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  149. Qvarnström 2003, p. 113. - Qvarnström, Olle, ed. (2003), Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini, Jain Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-89581-956-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=5_EdL2FtIqQC ↩

  150. Qvarnström 2003, pp. 169–174, 178–198 with footnotes. - Qvarnström, Olle, ed. (2003), Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini, Jain Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-89581-956-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=5_EdL2FtIqQC ↩

  151. Cort 2001a, pp. 118–122. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  152. Qvarnström 2003, pp. 205–212 with footnotes. - Qvarnström, Olle, ed. (2003), Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini, Jain Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-89581-956-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=5_EdL2FtIqQC ↩

  153. Balcerowicz 2015, pp. 144–150. - Balcerowicz, Piotr (2015), Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-317-53853-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ ↩

  154. Cort 2001a, pp. 120–21. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  155. Cort 2001a, pp. 120–122. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  156. Cort 2001a, pp. 120–122. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  157. Qvarnström 2003, p. 182 with footnote 3. - Qvarnström, Olle, ed. (2003), Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini, Jain Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-89581-956-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=5_EdL2FtIqQC ↩

  158. Johnson 1995, pp. 196–197. - Johnson, W.J. (1995), Harmless Souls: Karmic Bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism with Special Reference to Umāsvāti and Kundakunda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1309-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=vw8OUSfQbV4C ↩

  159. Qvarnström 2003, pp. 169–174, 178–198 with footnotes. - Qvarnström, Olle, ed. (2003), Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini, Jain Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-89581-956-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=5_EdL2FtIqQC ↩

  160. Cort 2001a, pp. 121–122. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  161. Shanti Lal Jain 1998, p. 51. - Jain, Shanti Lal (1998), ABC of Jainism, Jnanodaya Vidyapeeth, ISBN 978-81-7628-000-6 https://archive.org/details/abcofjainismcomp0000jain/page/51 ↩

  162. Balcerowicz 2015, pp. 15–18, 41–43. - Balcerowicz, Piotr (2015), Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-317-53853-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ ↩

  163. Cort 2001a, pp. 48–49. - Cort, John E. (2001a), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513234-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC ↩

  164. Balcerowicz 2009, p. 17. - Balcerowicz, Piotr (2009), Jainism and the definition of religion (1st ed.), Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, ISBN 978-81-88769-29-2 ↩

  165. Natubhai Shah 2004, pp. 2–3. - Shah, Natubhai (2004) [1998], Jainism: The World of Conquerors, vol. I, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1938-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC ↩

  166. Vijay K. Jain 2013, p. 197. - Jain, Vijay K. (2013), Ācārya Nemichandra's Dravyasaṃgraha, Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-5-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=g9CJ3jZpcqYC ↩

  167. Dundas 2002, pp. 152, 163–164. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  168. Jaini 1998, p. 190. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  169. Voorst 2015, p. 105. - Voorst, Robert E. Van (2015), RELG: World (Second ed.), Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-1-285-43468-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=37TcBAAAQBAJ ↩

  170. Sangave 1980, p. 260. - Sangave, Vilas Adinath (1980), Jain Community: A Social Survey (2nd ed.), Bombay: Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-0-317-12346-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=FWdWrRGV_t8C ↩

  171. In Jainism, the ahiṃsā precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter.[71] ↩

  172. Jaini 2000, p. 285. - Jaini, Padmanabh S., ed. (2000), Collected Papers On Jain Studies (First ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1691-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=HPggiM7y1aYC ↩

  173. Jaini 2000, p. 285. - Jaini, Padmanabh S., ed. (2000), Collected Papers On Jain Studies (First ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1691-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=HPggiM7y1aYC ↩

  174. Wiley 2009, p. 85. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, vol. 38, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ ↩

  175. Wiley 2009, pp. 85–86. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, vol. 38, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ ↩

  176. Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh 2008, pp. 92–94. - Singh, Ram Bhushan Prasad (2008) [1975], Jainism in Early Medieval Karnataka, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3323-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=JtWGm4E4qZIC ↩

  177. Wiley 2009, p. 72. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, vol. 38, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ ↩

  178. Wiley 2009, p. 72. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, vol. 38, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ ↩

  179. Wiley 2009, pp. 72, 85–86. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, vol. 38, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ ↩

  180. Wiley 2009, p. 85. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, vol. 38, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ ↩

  181. Wiley 2009, p. 85. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, vol. 38, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ ↩

  182. Wiley 2009, p. 86. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, vol. 38, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ ↩

  183. Wiley 2009, p. 86. - Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, vol. 38, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=cIhCCwAAQBAJ ↩

  184. Dundas 2002, pp. 166–169. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  185. Dundas 2002, pp. 166–169. - Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], The Jains (Second ed.), London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ ↩

  186. Jaini 1998, pp. 180–181. - Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jain Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1578-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C ↩

  187. The first is desavakasika (staying in a restrained surrounding, cutting down worldly activities). The third is posadhopavasa (fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles). The fourth is dana (giving alms to Jain monks, nuns or spiritual people).[133] ↩

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  304. Not to be confused with the four Vedas of Hinduism.[233] /wiki/Veda ↩

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  309. That Which Is, known as the Tattvartha Sūtra to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative and comprehensive summary of their religion."[237] ↩

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  339. Babb 1996, pp. 137–145, 54, 172. - Babb, Lawrence A. (1996), Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-91708-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=C8HcBvE8XJ4C ↩

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  341. According to Richard Gombrich and other scholars, Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient caste system and it too was focused on individual's liberation from rebirths and suffering. The caste system in Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented. Gombrich states, "Some modernists go so far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether: this is not the case, but is one of the mistakes picked up from western authors."[269][265][270] /wiki/Richard_Gombrich ↩

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  349. Whether the begging utensils of a monk, such as robe and begging bowl, were justified and legitimate for a Jain monk and were not considered an impediment on the path to salvation, remained a bone of contention among various splinter groups within Jainism, and was partly responsible for the ultimate Digambara-Svetambara split, although it would be a grave oversimplification to reduce the roots of the split to just monks' robes and bowls.[274] ↩

  350. Nisithabhasya (in Nisithasutra) 289; Jinadatta Suri: Upadesharasayana 26; Dundas pp. 162–163; Tähtinen p. 31. ↩

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  352. Harisena, Brhatkathakosa 124 (10th century); Jindal pp. 90–91; Sangave p. 259. ↩

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  369. Babb 1996, p. 66. - Babb, Lawrence A. (1996), Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-91708-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=C8HcBvE8XJ4C ↩

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  379. Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta.[302] ↩

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