• Images
• Videos
• Documents
• Books
• Articles

Related Image Collections Add Image

Profiles

1 Image

We don't have any YouTube videos related to East Asia yet.

You can add one yourself here.

We don't have any PDF documents related to East Asia yet.

You can add one yourself here.

We don't have any Books related to East Asia yet.

You can add one yourself here.

Archived Web Articles Add Article

What’s the Indo-Pacific – and how does the Quad work?

Sep 15 2021

History

Main article: History of East Asia

Ancient era

China was the first region settled in East Asia and was undoubtedly the core of East Asian civilization from where other parts of East Asia were formed. The various other regions in East Asia were selective in the Chinese influences they adopted into their local customs. Historian Ping-ti Ho referred to China as the cradle of Eastern civilization, in parallel with the cradle of Middle Eastern civilization along the Fertile Crescent encompassing Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt¹³ as well as the cradle of Western civilization encompassing Ancient Greece.

Chinese civilization emerged early, and prefigured other East Asian civilisations. Throughout history, imperial China would exert cultural, economic, technological, and political influence on its neighbours.¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶ Succeeding Chinese dynasties exerted enormous influence across East Asia culturally, economically, politically and militarily for over two millennia.¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹ The tributary system of China shaped much of East Asia's history for over two millennia due to Imperial China's economic and cultural influence over the region, and thus played a huge role in the history of East Asia in particular.²⁰²¹²² Imperial China's cultural preeminence not only led the country to become East Asia's first literate nation in the entire region, it also supplied Japan and Korea with Chinese loanwords and linguistic influences rooted in their writing systems.²³

Under Emperor Wu of Han, the Han dynasty made China the regional powerhouse in East Asia, projecting much of its imperial influence onto its neighbours.²⁴²⁵ Han China hosted the largest unified population in East Asia, the most literate and urbanised as well as being the most economically developed, as well as the most technologically and culturally advanced civilization in the region at the time.²⁶²⁷ Cultural and religious interaction between the Chinese and other regional East Asian dynasties and kingdoms occurred. China's impact and influence on Korea began with the Han dynasty's northeastern expansion in 108 BC when the Han Chinese conquered the northern part of the Korean peninsula and established a province called Lelang. Chinese influences were transmitted and soon took root in Korea through the inclusion of the Chinese writing system, monetary system, rice culture, philosophical schools of thought, and Confucian political institutions.²⁸ Jomon society in ancient Japan incorporated wet-rice cultivation and metallurgy through its contact with Korea. Starting in the fourth century AD, Japan adopted Chinese characters, which remain integral to the Japanese writing system. Utilizing the Chinese writing system allowed the Japanese to conduct their daily activities, maintain historical records and give form to various ideas, thoughts, and philosophies.

Medieval era

During the Tang dynasty, China exerted its greatest influence on East Asia as various aspects of Chinese culture spread to Japan and Korea.²⁹ The establishment of the medieval Tang dynasty rekindled the impetus of Chinese expansionism across the geopolitical confines of East Asia. Similar to its Han predecessor, Tang China reasserted itself as the center of East Asian geopolitical influence during the early medieval period which spearheaded and marked another golden age in Chinese history. During the Tang dynasty, China exerted its greatest influence on East Asia as various aspects of Chinese culture spread to Japan and Korea.³⁰³¹ In addition, Tang China also managed to maintain control over northern Vietnam and northern Korea.³²

As full-fledged medieval East Asian states were established, Korea by the fourth century AD and Japan by the seventh century AD, Japan and Korea actively began to incorporate Chinese influences such as Confucianism, the use of Chinese characters, architecture, state institutions, political philosophies, religion, urban planning, and various scientific and technological methods into their culture and society through direct contacts with Tang China and succeeding Chinese dynasties.³³³⁴³⁵ Drawing inspiration from the Tang political system, Prince Naka no oe launched the Taika Reform in 645 AD where he radically transformed Japan's political bureaucracy into a more centralised bureaucratic empire.³⁶ The Japanese also adopted Mahayana Buddhism, Chinese style architecture, and the imperial court's rituals and ceremonies, including the orchestral music and state dances had Tang influences. Written Chinese gained prestige and aspects of Tang culture such as poetry, calligraphy, and landscape painting became widespread.³⁷ During the Nara period, Japan began to aggressively import Chinese culture and styles of government which included Confucian protocol that served as a foundation for Japanese culture as well as political and social philosophy.³⁸³⁹ The Japanese also created laws adopted from the Chinese legal system that was used to govern in addition to the kimono, which was inspired from Chinese hanfu during the eighth century.

Modern era

For many centuries, most notably from the 7th to the 14th centuries, China stood as East Asia's most advanced civilization and foremost military and economic power, exerting its influence as the transmission of advanced Chinese cultural practices and ways of thinking greatly shaped the region up until the nineteenth century.⁴⁰⁴¹⁴² From third century through the eighteenth century, diplomatic and trade relations between China and other East Asian countries and the steppe kingdoms was governed through a tributary system.⁴³: 13–14  Under this system, the Chinese emperor received tribute from other rulers and in return received political benefits (like recognition or non-aggression agreements) or physical gifts, like porcelain and silks.⁴⁴: 14  Through this system, the Chinese emperor conferred legitimacy on other rulers.⁴⁵: 14 

As East Asia's connections with Europe and the Western world strengthened during the late nineteenth century, China's power began to decline.⁴⁶⁴⁷ By the mid-nineteenth century, the weakening Qing dynasty became fraught with political corruption, obstacles and stagnation that was incapable of rejuvenating itself as a world power in contrast to the industrializing Imperial European colonial powers and a rapidly modernizing Japan.⁴⁸⁴⁹ The United States Commodore Matthew C. Perry would open Japan to Western influence, and the country would expand in earnest after the 1860s.⁵⁰⁵¹⁵² Around the same time, the Meiji Restoration in Japan sparked rapid societal transformation from an isolated feudal state into East Asia's first industrialised nation.⁵³⁵⁴ The modern and militarily powerful Japan would galvanise its position in the Orient as East Asia's greatest power with a global mission poised to advance to lead the entire world.⁵⁵⁵⁶ By the early 1900s, the Empire of Japan succeeded in asserting itself as East Asia's most dominant geopolitical force.⁵⁷

With its newly found international status, Japan would begin to challenge the European colonial powers and inextricably took on a more active role within the East Asian geopolitical order and world affairs at large.⁵⁸ Flexing its nascent political and military might, Japan soundly defeated the stagnant Qing dynasty during the First Sino-Japanese War as well as defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905; the first major military victory in the modern era of an East Asian power over a European one.^59606162

During World War I, European military presence in East Asia decreased.⁶³: 34  Japan viewed this as an opportunity to increase its power in China and shortly after the war began, occupied Germany's concessions in Shandong.⁶⁴: 34  In December 1914, Japan made its Twenty-One Demands to China.⁶⁵: 34  The Republic of China under Yuan Shikai conceded to most of the demands in 1915, and subsequent treaties and agreements further increased Japan's semi-colonial power in China.⁶⁶: 34 

Japan hegemony was the heart of an empire that would include Taiwan and Korea.⁶⁷ During World War II, Japanese expansionism with its imperialist aspirations through the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere would incorporate Korea, Taiwan, much of eastern China and Manchuria, Hong Kong, and Southeast Asia under its control establishing itself as a maritime colonial power in East Asia.⁶⁸

Contemporary era

See also: Pacific Century

After a century of exploitation by the European and Japanese colonialists, post-colonial East Asia saw the defeat and occupation of Japan by the victorious Allies. The end of World War II did not result in east Asian countries obtaining independence or national unification.⁶⁹: 4  Independence and national unification were primary concerns for the first generation of east Asian post-World War II leaders.⁷⁰: 4 

The Chinese Civil War resumed after the defeat of the Japanese, with the Communists defeating the Nationalist Republic of China government. The government of the Republic of China retreated to Taiwan and the People's Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 October 1949.

Post-war, the Korean peninsula was partitioned, leading to the development of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea). The Korean War (1950–1953) increased regional and international tensions.⁷¹: 163  The northeast part of east Asia hardened along communist and anti-communist lines.⁷²: 163  South Korea, Taiwan, and the United States increased their ties.⁷³: 163 

During the latter half of the twentieth century, the region would see the post war economic miracle of Japan, which ushered in three decades of unprecedented growth, only to experience an economic slowdown during the 1990s, but nonetheless Japan continues to remain a global economic power. East Asia would also see the economic rise of Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan, in addition to the respective handovers of Hong Kong and Macau near the end of the twentieth century.

The onset of the 21st-century in East Asia led to the integration of Mainland China into the global economy through its entry in the World Trade Organization while also enhancing its emerging international status as a potential world power reinforced with its aim of restoring its historical established significance and enduring international prominence in the world economy.^{7475767778798081}

As of at least 2022, the region is more peaceful, integrated, wealthy, and stable than any time in the previous 150 years.⁸²: 183 

Definitions

In common usage, the term "East Asia" typically refers to a region including Greater China, Japan, Korea and Mongolia.^{8384858687888990}

China, Japan, and Korea represent the three core countries and civilizations of traditional East Asia, as they once had a shared written language, a shared culture, and a shared Confucian societal value system (involving shared Confucian philosophical tenets) once instituted by Imperial China.^9192939495 Other usages define China, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan as countries that constitute East Asia based on their geographic proximity as well as historical and modern cultural and economic ties, particularly with Japan and Korea in having retained strong cultural influences that originated from China.^96979899100 Some scholars include Vietnam as part of East Asia as it has been considered part of the greater Chinese cultural sphere. Though Confucianism continues to play an important role in Vietnamese culture, Chinese characters are no longer used in its written language and many scholarly organizations classify Vietnam as a Southeast Asian country.^101102103 Mongolia is geographically north of Mainland China yet Confucianism and the Chinese writing system and culture had limited impact on Mongolian society. Thus, Mongolia is sometimes grouped with Central Asian countries such as Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan.¹⁰⁴¹⁰⁵ Xinjiang and Tibet are sometimes seen as part of Central Asia (see also Greater Central Asia).^106107108

Broader and looser definitions by international agencies and organisations such as the World Bank refer to East Asia as the "three major Northeast Asian economies, i.e. mainland China, Japan, and South Korea", as well as Mongolia, North Korea, the Russian Far East, and Siberia.¹⁰⁹ The Council on Foreign Relations includes the Russia Far East, Mongolia, and Nepal.¹¹⁰ The World Bank also acknowledges the roles of Chinese special administrative regions Hong Kong and Macau, as well as Taiwan, a country with limited recognition. The Economic Research Institute for Northeast Asia defines the region as "China, Japan, the Koreas, Nepal, Mongolia, and eastern regions of the Russian Federation".¹¹¹

The UNSD definition of East Asia is based on statistical convenience,¹¹² but others commonly use the same definition of Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan.¹¹³¹¹⁴

Certain Japanese islands are associated with Oceania due to non-continental geology, distance from mainland Asia or biogeographical similarities with Micronesia.¹¹⁵¹¹⁶ Some groups, such as the World Health Organization, categorize China, Japan and Korea with Australia and the rest of Oceania. The World Health Organization label this region the "Western Pacific", with East Asia not being used in their concept of major world regions. Their definition of this region further includes Mongolia and the adjacent area of Cambodia, as well as the countries of the South East Asia Archipelago (excluding East Timor and Indonesia).¹¹⁷

Alternative definitions

See also: Pacific Asia

In the context of business and economics, "East Asia" is sometimes used to refer to the geographical area covering ten Southeast Asian countries in ASEAN, Greater China, Japan, and Korea. However, in this context, the term "Far East" is used by the Europeans to cover ASEAN countries and the countries in East Asia. On rare occasions, the term is also sometimes taken to include India and other South Asian countries that are not situated within the bounds of the Asia-Pacific, although the term Indo-Pacific is more commonly used for such a definition.¹¹⁸

Observers preferring a broader definition of "East Asia" often use the term Northeast Asia to refer to China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan, with the region of Southeast Asia covering the ten ASEAN countries. This usage, which is seen in economic and diplomatic discussions, is at odds with the historical meanings of both "East Asia" and "Northeast Asia".^119120121 The Council on Foreign Relations of the United States defines Northeast Asia as Japan and Korea.¹²²

Climate

East Asia is home to many climatic zones. It also has unique weather patterns such as the East Asian rainy season and the East Asian Monsoon.¹²³

Climate change

Main article: Climate change in Asia

Like the rest of the world, East Asia has been getting warmer due to climate change, and there had been a measurable increase in the frequency and severity of heatwaves.¹²⁴: 1464  The region is also expected to see the intensification of its monsoon, leading to more flooding.¹²⁵: 1459  China has notably embarked on the sponge cities program, where cities are designed to increase the area of urban green spaces and permeable pavings in order to help deal with flash floods caused by greater precipitation extremes.¹²⁶: 1504  Under high-warming scenarios, "critical health thresholds" for heat stress during the 21st century will be at times breached,¹²⁷: 1465  in areas like the North China Plain.¹²⁸

China, Japan and the Republic of Korea are expected to see some of the largest economic losses caused by sea level rise.¹²⁹ The city of Guangzhou is projected to experience the single largest annual economic losses from sea level rise in the world, potentially reaching US$254 million by 2050. Under the highest climate change scenario and in the absence of adaptation, cumulative economic losses caused by sea level rise in Guangzhou would exceed US$1 trillion by 2100.¹³⁰ Shanghai is also expected to experience annual losses of around 1% of the local GDP in the absence of adaptation.¹³¹ The Yangtze River basin is a sensitive and biodiverse ecosystem, yet around 20% of its species may be lost throughout the century under 2 °C (3.6 °F) and ~43% under 4.5 °C (8.1 °F).¹³²: 1476 

Economy

Main article: Economy of East Asia

Territorial and regional data

China, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan are all unrecognised by at least one other East Asian state because of severe ongoing political tensions in the region, specifically the division of Korea and the political status of Taiwan.

Etymology

Demographics

Religion

Main article: East Asian religions

Ethnic groups

Main articles: East Asians and Ethnic groups of East Asia

• Note: The order of states/territories follows the population ranking of each ethnicity, within East Asia only.

Culture

Main category: Culture of East Asia

Overview

The culture of East Asia has been deeply influenced by China, as it was the civilization that had the most dominant influence in the region throughout the ages that ultimately laid the foundation for East Asian civilization. The vast knowledge and ingenuity of Chinese civilization and the classics of Chinese literature and culture were seen as the foundations for a civilized life in East Asia. Imperial China served as a vehicle through which the adoption of Confucian ethical philosophy, Chinese calendar system, political and legal systems, architectural style, diet, terminology, institutions, religious beliefs, imperial examinations that emphasised a knowledge of Chinese classics, political philosophy and cultural value systems, as well as historically sharing a common writing system reflected in the histories of Japan and Korea.^{168169170171172173}

The Imperial Chinese tributary system was the bedrock of network of trade and foreign relations between China and its East Asian tributaries, which helped to shape much of East Asian affairs during the ancient and medieval eras. Through the tributary system, the various dynasties of Imperial China facilitated frequent economic and cultural exchange that influenced the cultures of Japan and Korea and drew them into a Chinese international order.¹⁷⁴ The Imperial Chinese tributary system shaped much of East Asia's foreign policy and trade for over two millennia due to Imperial China's economic and cultural dominance over the region, and thus played a huge role in the history of East Asia in particular.¹⁷⁵¹⁷⁶ The relationship between China and its cultural influence on East Asia has been compared to the historical influence of Greco-Roman civilization on classical Western civilisation.^177178179

Since the late 19th century, the initially unequal encounter with Western influences has also shaped East Asia.¹⁸⁰

Festivals

*Japan switched the date to the Gregorian calendar after the Meiji Restoration. *Not always on that Gregorian date, sometimes April 4.

Entertainment

East Asian popular culture, such as anime and manga from Japan and K-pop and K-dramas from South Korea, have become highly popular worldwide in the 21st century.¹⁸¹

Sports

Baseball is one of the main sports in East Asia, having been introduced through mid-19th century American contact and further spread by the Japanese Empire.¹⁸² The game has gained millions of fans in China since the 2010s.¹⁸³

East Asian Youth Games

Main article: East Asian Youth Games

Formerly the East Asian Games, it is a multi-sport event organized by the East Asian Games Association (EAGA) and held every four years since 2019 among athletes from East Asian countries and territories of the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), as well as the Pacific island of Guam, which is a member of the Oceania National Olympic Committees.

It is one of five Regional Games of the OCA. The others are the Central Asian Games, the Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games), the South Asian Games and the West Asian Games.

Collaboration

Free trade agreements

Military alliances

Major cities

Main article: Cities of East Asia

See also

• Geography portal
• Asia portal
• China portal
• Hong Kong portal
• Japan portal
• North Korea portal
• South Korea portal
• Taiwan portal

• East Asia–United States relations
• East Asian Community
• China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summit
• East Asia Summit
• East Asian studies

Notes

Further reading

• Church, Peter. A short history of South-East Asia (John Wiley & Sons, 2017).
• Chung, Eunbin. Pride, Not Prejudice: National Identity as a Pacifying Force in East Asia (University of Michigan Press, 2022) online reviews by six scholars
• Clyde, Paul H., and Burton F. Beers. The Far East: A History of Western Impacts and Eastern Responses, 1830–1975 (1975) online 3rd edition 1958
• Crofts, Alfred. A history of the Far East (1958) online free to borrow
• Dennett, Tyler. Americans in Eastern Asia (1922) online free
• Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Anne Walthall. East Asia: A cultural, social, and political history (Cengage Learning, 2013).
• Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988)
  • vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online
• Fairbank, John K., Edwin Reischauer, and Albert M. Craig. East Asia: The great tradition and East Asia: The modern transformation (1960) [2 vol 1960] online free to borrow, famous textbook.
• Flynn, Matthew J. China Contested: Western Powers in East Asia (2006), for secondary schools
• Gelber, Harry. The dragon and the foreign devils: China and the world, 1100 BC to the present (2011).
• Green, Michael J. By more than providence: grand strategy and American power in the Asia Pacific since 1783 (2017) a major scholarly survey excerpt
• Hall, D.G.E. History of South East Asia (Macmillan International Higher Education, 1981).
• Holcombe, Charles. A History of East Asia (2d ed. Cambridge UP, 2017). excerpt
• Iriye, Akira. After Imperialism; The Search for a New Order in the Far East 1921–1931. (1965).
• Jensen, Richard, Jon Davidann, and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds. Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century (Praeger, 2003), 304 pp online review
• Keay, John. Empire's End: A History of the Far East from High Colonialism to Hong Kong (Scribner, 1997). online free to borrow
• Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. (6 vol. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002).
• Mackerras, Colin. Eastern Asia: an introductory history (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1992).
• Macnair, Harley F. & Donald Lach. Modern Far Eastern International Relations. (2nd ed 1955) 1950 edition online free, 780pp; focus on 1900–1950.
• Miller, David Y. Modern East Asia: An Introductory History (Routledge, 2007)
• Murphey, Rhoads. East Asia: A New History (1996)
• Norman, Henry. The Peoples and Politics of the Far East: Travels and studies in the British, French, Spanish and Portuguese colonies, Siberia, China, Japan, Korea, Siam and Malaya (1904) online
• Paine, S. C. M. The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 (2014) excerpt
• Prescott, Anne. East Asia in the World: An Introduction (Routledge, 2015)
• Ring, George C. Religions of the Far East: Their History to the Present Day (Kessinger Publishing, 2006).
• Szpilman, Christopher W. A., Sven Saaler. "Japan and Asia" in Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese History (2017) online
• Steiger, G. Nye. A history of the Far East (1936).
• Vinacke, Harold M. A History of the Far East in Modern Times (1964) online free
• Vogel, Ezra. China and Japan: Facing History (2019) excerpt
• Woodcock, George. The British in the Far East (1969) online

External links

References

1. Kort, Michael (2005). The Handbook Of East Asia. Lerner. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-761-32672-4. 978-0-761-32672-4 ↩

2. "East Asia". rand.org. RAND Corporation. Archived from the original on 2011-01-02. Retrieved 12 August 2021. https://www.rand.org/topics/east-asia.html ↩

3. Zaharna, R. S.; Arsenault, Amelia; Fisher, Ali (2013). Relational, Networked and Collaborative Approaches to Public Diplomacy: The Connective Mindshift. Routledge. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-415-63607-0. 978-0-415-63607-0 ↩

4. Holcombe, Charles (2017). A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-107-54489-5. 978-1-107-54489-5 ↩

5. Szonyi, Michael (2017). A Companion to Chinese History. Wiley–Blackwell. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-118-62460-9. 978-1-118-62460-9 ↩

6. Selin, Helaine (2010). Nature Across Cultures: Views of Nature and the Environment in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 350. ISBN 978-9-048-16271-0. 978-9-048-16271-0 ↩

7. Laozi; Mair, Victor H. (1998). Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way. New York: Quality Paperback Book Club. pp. x. ISBN 978-0-965-06475-0. 978-0-965-06475-0 ↩

8. Salkind, Neil J. (2008). Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology. Sage Publications. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-412-91688-2. 978-1-412-91688-2 ↩

9. Kim, Chongho (2003). Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-754-63185-9. 978-0-754-63185-9 ↩

10. Andreas Anangguru Yewangoe, "Theologia crucis in Asia", 1987 Rodopi ↩

11. Heissig, Walther (2000). The Religions of Mongolia. Translated by Samuel, Geoffrey. Kegan Paul International. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-710-30685-2. 978-0-710-30685-2 ↩

12. Wang, Yuchen; Lu, Dongsheng; Chung, Yeun-Jun; Xu, Shuhua (2018). "Genetic structure, divergence and admixture of Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean populations". Hereditas. 155: 19. doi:10.1186/s41065-018-0057-5. PMC 5889524. PMID 29636655. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5889524 ↩

13. Holcombe, Charles (2017). A History of East Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-11873-7. 978-1-107-11873-7 ↩

14. Ball, Desmond (2005). The Transformation of Security in the Asia/Pacific Region. Routledge. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-714-64661-9. 978-0-714-64661-9 ↩

15. Chua, Amy; Rubenfeld, Jed (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-594-20546-0. 978-1-594-20546-0 ↩

16. Kang, David C. (2012). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. Columbia University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-2-311-5319-5. 978-0-2-311-5319-5 ↩

17. Kang, David C. (2012). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. Columbia University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-2-311-5319-5. 978-0-2-311-5319-5 ↩

18. Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2012). World History: Journeys from Past to Present. Routledge. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-415-67002-9. 978-0-415-67002-9 ↩

19. Smolnikov, Sergey (2018). Great Power Conduct and Credibility in World Politics. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-71885-9. 978-3-319-71885-9 ↩

20. Lone, Stewart (2007). Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Asia: From the Taiping Rebellion to the Vietnam War. Greenwood. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-313-33684-3. 978-0-313-33684-3 ↩

21. Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10108-2. 0-231-10108-2 ↩

22. Chua, Amy; Rubenfeld, Jed (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-594-20546-0. 978-1-594-20546-0 ↩

23. Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3. 978-0-521-29653-3 ↩

24. Kang, David C. (2012). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. Columbia University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-2-311-5319-5. 978-0-2-311-5319-5 ↩

25. Cohen 2000, p. 60. - Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10108-2. ↩

26. Chua, Amy (2009). Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance—and Why They Fall. Anchor. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-400-07741-0. 978-1-400-07741-0 ↩

27. Leibo, Steve (2012). East and Southeast Asia 2012. Stryker-Post. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-610-48885-3. 978-1-610-48885-3 ↩

28. Tsai, Henry (2009). Maritime Taiwan: Historical Encounters with the East and the West. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-765-62328-7. 978-0-765-62328-7 ↩

29. Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 2–3, 7. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf ↩

30. Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 2–3, 7. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf ↩

31. Lockard 1999, p. 7 - Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 2–3, 7. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf ↩

32. Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-09846-6 – via Google Books. 978-1-107-09846-6 ↩

33. Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 2–3, 7. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf ↩

34. Lockard 1999, p. 7 - Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 2–3, 7. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf ↩

35. Fagan, Brian M. (1999). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-195-07618-9. 978-0-195-07618-9 ↩

36. Lockard 1999, p. 8 - Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 2–3, 7. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf ↩

37. Lockard 1999, p. 8 - Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 2–3, 7. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf ↩

38. Lockard, Craig A. (2009). Societies Networks And Transitions: Volume B From 600 To 1750. Wadsworth. pp. 290–291. ISBN 978-1-439-08540-0. 978-1-439-08540-0 ↩

39. Embree, Ainslie; Gluck, Carol (1997). Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching. M. E. Sharpe. p. 352. ISBN 978-1-563-24265-6. 978-1-563-24265-6 ↩

40. Lind, Jennifer (February 13, 2018). "Life in China's Asia: What Regional Hegemony Would Look Like". Foreign Affairs. Vol. 97, no. March/April 2018. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2018-02-13/life-chinas-asia ↩

41. Lockard 1999 - Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 2–3, 7. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf ↩

42. Ellington, Lucien (2009). Japan. Nations in Focus. Bloomsbury. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-598-84163-3. 978-1-598-84163-3 ↩

43. Li, Xiaobing (2018). The Cold War in East Asia. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-65179-1. 978-1-138-65179-1 ↩

44. Li, Xiaobing (2018). The Cold War in East Asia. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-65179-1. 978-1-138-65179-1 ↩

45. Li, Xiaobing (2018). The Cold War in East Asia. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-65179-1. 978-1-138-65179-1 ↩

46. Ball, Desmond (2005). The Transformation of Security in the Asia/Pacific Region. Routledge. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-714-64661-9. 978-0-714-64661-9 ↩

47. Roberts, John M. (1997). A Short History of the World. Oxford University Press. p. 272. ISBN 0-195-11504-X. 0-195-11504-X ↩

48. Hayes, Louis D. (2009). Political Systems of East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan. Greenlight. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-765-61786-6. 978-0-765-61786-6 ↩

49. Hayes 2009, p. 15 - Hayes, Louis D. (2009). Political Systems of East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan. Greenlight. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-765-61786-6. ↩

50. Tindall, George Brown; Shi, David E. (2009). America: A Narrative History. W. W. Norton. p. 926. ISBN 978-0-393-934083. 978-0-393-934083 ↩

51. April, K.; Shockley, M. (2007). Diversity: New Realities in a Changing World. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 163. ISBN 978-0-230-00133-6. 978-0-230-00133-6 ↩

52. Cohen 2000, p. 3 - Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10108-2. ↩

53. Batty, David (2005-01-17). Japan's War in Colour (documentary). TWI. ↩

54. April, K.; Shockley, M. (2007). Diversity: New Realities in a Changing World. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 163. ISBN 978-0-230-00133-6. 978-0-230-00133-6 ↩

55. Batty, David (2005-01-17). Japan's War in Colour (documentary). TWI. ↩

56. Goldman, Merie; Gordon, Andrew (2000). Diversity: New Realities in a Changing World. Harvard University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-674-00097-1. 978-0-674-00097-1 ↩

57. Goldman, Merie; Gordon, Andrew (2000). Diversity: New Realities in a Changing World. Harvard University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-674-00097-1. 978-0-674-00097-1 ↩

58. Cohen 2000, p. 273. - Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10108-2. ↩

59. Hua, Shiping; Hu, Amelia (2014). East Asian Development Model: Twenty-first century perspectives. Routledge. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0-415-73727-2. 978-0-415-73727-2 ↩

60. Lee, Yong Wook; Key, Young Son (2014). China's Rise and Regional Integration in East Asia: Hegemony or community?. Routledge. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-313-35082-5. 978-0-313-35082-5 ↩

61. "Sino-Japanese War (1894–95)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 12 November 2012. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/546176/Sino-Japanese-War ↩

62. Tindall, George Brown; Shi, David E. (2009). America: A Narrative History. W. W. Norton. p. 926. ISBN 978-0-393-934083. 978-0-393-934083 ↩

63. Hirata, Koji (2024). Making Mao's Steelworks: Industrial Manchuria and the Transnational Origins of Chinese Socialism. Cambridge Studies in the History of the People's Republic of China series. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-38227-4. 978-1-009-38227-4 ↩

64. Hirata, Koji (2024). Making Mao's Steelworks: Industrial Manchuria and the Transnational Origins of Chinese Socialism. Cambridge Studies in the History of the People's Republic of China series. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-38227-4. 978-1-009-38227-4 ↩

65. Hirata, Koji (2024). Making Mao's Steelworks: Industrial Manchuria and the Transnational Origins of Chinese Socialism. Cambridge Studies in the History of the People's Republic of China series. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-38227-4. 978-1-009-38227-4 ↩

66. Hirata, Koji (2024). Making Mao's Steelworks: Industrial Manchuria and the Transnational Origins of Chinese Socialism. Cambridge Studies in the History of the People's Republic of China series. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-38227-4. 978-1-009-38227-4 ↩

67. Batty, David (2005-01-17). Japan's War in Colour (documentary). TWI. ↩

68. Tindall & Shi 2009, p. 1147 - Tindall, George Brown; Shi, David E. (2009). America: A Narrative History. W. W. Norton. p. 926. ISBN 978-0-393-934083. ↩

69. Li, Xiaobing (2018). The Cold War in East Asia. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-65179-1. 978-1-138-65179-1 ↩

70. Li, Xiaobing (2018). The Cold War in East Asia. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-65179-1. 978-1-138-65179-1 ↩

71. Liff, Adam P.; Lee, Chaewon (2024). "Korea-Taiwan "Unofficial" Relations after 30 Years (1992-2022): Reassessing Seoul's "One China" Policy". In Zhao, Suisheng (ed.). The Taiwan Question in Xi Jinping's Era: Beijing's Evolving Taiwan Policy and Taiwan's Internal and External Dynamics. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781032861661. 9781032861661 ↩

72. Liff, Adam P.; Lee, Chaewon (2024). "Korea-Taiwan "Unofficial" Relations after 30 Years (1992-2022): Reassessing Seoul's "One China" Policy". In Zhao, Suisheng (ed.). The Taiwan Question in Xi Jinping's Era: Beijing's Evolving Taiwan Policy and Taiwan's Internal and External Dynamics. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781032861661. 9781032861661 ↩

73. Liff, Adam P.; Lee, Chaewon (2024). "Korea-Taiwan "Unofficial" Relations after 30 Years (1992-2022): Reassessing Seoul's "One China" Policy". In Zhao, Suisheng (ed.). The Taiwan Question in Xi Jinping's Era: Beijing's Evolving Taiwan Policy and Taiwan's Internal and External Dynamics. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781032861661. 9781032861661 ↩

74. Kort, Michael (2005). The Handbook Of East Asia. Lerner. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-761-32672-4. 978-0-761-32672-4 ↩

75. Northrup, Cynthia Clark; Bentley, Jerry H.; Eckes, Alfred E. Jr. (2004). Encyclopedia of World Trade: From Ancient Times to the Present. Routledge. p. 297. ISBN 978-0-765-68058-7. 978-0-765-68058-7 ↩

76. Paul, Erik (2012). Neoliberal Australia and US Imperialism in East Asia. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 114. ISBN 978-1-137-27277-5. 978-1-137-27277-5 ↩

77. Maddison, Angus (2007). Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-191-64758-1. 978-0-191-64758-1 ↩

78. Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. "China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies". Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved 26 July 2014. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052 ↩

79. "Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Development Centre Studies" (PDF). p. 29. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 15 September 2017. http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Maddison98.pdf ↩

80. Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank publications. Accessed January 30, 2008. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052 ↩

81. Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run Archived 2014-10-15 at the Wayback Machine. Development Centre Studies. Accessed 2007. p.29 See the "Table 1.3. Levels of Chinese and European GDP Per Capita, 1–1700 AD" in page 29, Chinese GDP Per Capita was 450 and European GDP Per Capital was 422 in 960AD. Chinese GDP Per Capita was 600 while European was 576. During this time, Chinese per capita income rose by about a third. /wiki/Angus_Maddison ↩

82. Ma, Xinru; Kang, David C. (2024). Beyond Power Transitions: The Lessons of East Asian History and the Future of U.S.-China Relations. Columbia Studies in International Order and Politics. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-55597-5. 978-0-231-55597-5 ↩

83. Paul, Erik (2012). Neoliberal Australia and US Imperialism in East Asia. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 114. ISBN 978-1-137-27277-5. 978-1-137-27277-5 ↩

84. "Introducing East Asian Peoples" (PDF). International Mission Board. September 10, 2016. https://www.imb.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Introducing_EAP_Booklet_09_2016_10.pdf ↩

85. Gilbet Rozman (2004), Northeast Asia's stunted regionalism: bilateral distrust in the shadow of globalization. Cambridge University Press, pp. 3–4 ↩

86. "Northeast Asia dominates patent filing growth." Retrieved on August 8, 2001. https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/09/us-technology-patents-idUSTRE7184CN20110209 ↩

87. "Paper: Economic Integration in Northeast Asia."[dead link‍] Retrieved on August 8, 2011. http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/schott1001-1.pdf ↩

88. Hua & Hu 2014, p. 3. - Hua, Shiping; Hu, Amelia (2014). East Asian Development Model: Twenty-first century perspectives. Routledge. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0-415-73727-2. ↩

89. Ness, Immanuel; Bellwood, Peter (2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-118-97059-1. 978-1-118-97059-1 ↩

90. Kort 2005, pp. 7–9 - Kort, Michael (2005). The Handbook Of East Asia. Lerner. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-761-32672-4. https://archive.org/details/handbookofeastas0000kort/page/7 ↩

91. Prescott, Anne (2015). East Asia in the World: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 978-0765643223. 978-0765643223 ↩

92. Ikeo, Aiko (1996). Economic Development in Twentieth-Century East Asia: The International Context. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-415-14900-6. 978-0-415-14900-6 ↩

93. Yoshimatsu, H. (2014). Comparing Institution-Building in East Asia: Power Politics, Governance, and Critical Junctures. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-137-37054-9. 978-1-137-37054-9 ↩

94. Kim, Mikyoung (2015). Routledge Handbook of Memory and Reconciliation in East Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-83513-8. 978-0-415-83513-8 ↩

95. Hazen, Dan; Spohrer, James H. (2005). Building Area Studies Collections. Otto Harrassowitz. p. 130. ISBN 978-3-447-05512-3. 978-3-447-05512-3 ↩

96. Prescott, Anne (2015). East Asia in the World: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 978-0765643223. 978-0765643223 ↩

97. Hazen, Dan; Spohrer, James H. (2005). Building Area Studies Collections. Otto Harrassowitz. p. 130. ISBN 978-3-447-05512-3. 978-3-447-05512-3 ↩

98. Grabowski, Richard; Self, Sharmistha; Shields, William (2012). Economic Development: A Regional, Institutional, and Historical Approach (2nd ed.). Routledge (published September 25, 2012). p. 59. ISBN 978-0-765-63353-8. 978-0-765-63353-8 ↩

99. Currie, Lorenzo (2013). Through the Eyes of the Pack. Xlibris Corp. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-493-14517-1. 978-1-493-14517-1 ↩

100. Asato, Noriko (2013). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-598-84842-7. 978-1-598-84842-7 ↩

101. Prescott 2015, p. 6 - Prescott, Anne (2015). East Asia in the World: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 978-0765643223. ↩

102. Miller, David Y. (2007). Modern East Asia: An Introductory History. Routledge. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-765-61822-1. 978-0-765-61822-1 ↩

103. "Central Themes for a Unit on China r Educators". afe.easia.columbia.edu. Columbia University. Retrieved 2018-12-01. "Within the Pacific region, China is potentially a major economic and political force. Its relations with Japan, Korea, and its Southeast Asian neighbours, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines, will be determined by how they perceive this power will be used." http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/main_pop/kpct/ct_china.htm ↩

104. Prescott 2015, p. 6 - Prescott, Anne (2015). East Asia in the World: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 978-0765643223. ↩

105. Miller, David Y. (2007). Modern East Asia: An Introductory History. Routledge. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-765-61822-1. 978-0-765-61822-1 ↩

106. Cummings, Sally N. (2013). Understanding Central Asia: Politics and Contested Transformations. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-43319-3. 978-1-134-43319-3 ↩

107. Saez, Lawrence (2012). The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC): An emerging collaboration architecture. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-67108-1. 978-1-136-67108-1 ↩

108. Cornell, Svante E. Modernization and Regional Cooperation in Central Asia: A New Spring? (PDF). Central Asia-Caucasus Institute and the Silk Road Studies. http://silkroadstudies.org/resources/1811CA-Regional.pdf ↩

109. Aminian, Nathalie; Fung, K. C.; Ng, Francis. "Integration of Markets vs. Integration by Agreements" (PDF). Policy Research Working Paper. World Bank. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/03/04/000158349_20080304084358/Rendered/PDF/wps4546.pdf ↩

110. "Northeast Asia". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved August 10, 2009. http://www.cfr.org/region/478/northeast_asia.html ↩

111. Economic Research Institute for Northeast Asia (1999). Japan and Russia in Northeast Asia: Partners in the 21st Century. Greenwood. p. 248. ↩

112. "United Nations Statistics Division – Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)". United Nations Statistics Division. 2015-05-06. Retrieved 2010-07-24. http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm ↩

113. "East Asia". Encarta. Microsoft. Archived from the original on 2009-11-09. Retrieved 2008-01-12. the countries and regions of Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Mongolia, South Korea, North Korea and Japan. https://web.archive.org/web/20091109184354/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861672714/East_Asia.html ↩

114. "Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings". United Nations Statistics Division. 11 February 2013. Retrieved 28 May 2013. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm ↩

115. Todd, Ian (1974). Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama. Angus & Robertson. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-207-127618-. 978-0-207-127618- ↩

116. Udvardy, Miklos D. F. "A Classification of the Biogeographical Provinces of the World" (PDF). UNESCO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220218131430/http://www.fnad.org/Documentos/A%20Classification%20of%20the%20Biogeographical%20Provinces%20of%20the%20World%20Miklos%20D.F.%20Udvardy.pdf ↩

117. "IMAGE: Countries and areas in WHO's Western Pacific Region" – via ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Countries-and-areas-in-WHOs-Western-Pacific-Region_fig1_256404088 ↩

118. "Forget Asia-Pacific, it's Indo-Pacific now. Where is that?". 15 September 2021. https://www.smh.com.au/national/forget-asia-pacific-it-s-the-indo-pacific-we-live-in-now-where-is-that-exactly-20210810-p58hku.html ↩

119. Dent, Christopher M. (2008). East Asian regionalism. Routledge. pp. 1–8. https://archive.org/details/eastasianregiona00dent ↩

120. Harvie, Charles; Fukunari, Kimura; Lee, Hyun-Hoon (2005). New East Asian regionalism. Edward Elgar. pp. 3–6. ↩

121. Katzenstein, Peter J.; Takashi, Shiraishi (2006). Beyond Japan: the dynamics of East Asian regionalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp. 1–33. ↩

122. "Northeast Asia". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved August 10, 2009. http://www.cfr.org/region/478/northeast_asia.html ↩

123. An, Z (April 2000). "Asynchronous Holocene optimum of the East Asian monsoon". Quaternary Science Reviews. 19 (8): 743–762. Bibcode:2000QSRv...19..743A. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00031-1. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

124. Shaw, R., Y. Luo, T. S. Cheong, S. Abdul Halim, S. Chaturvedi, M. Hashizume, G. E. Insarov, Y. Ishikawa, M. Jafari, A. Kitoh, J. Pulhin, C. Singh, K. Vasant, and Z. Zhang, 2022: Chapter 10: Asia. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter10.pdf ↩

125. Shaw, R., Y. Luo, T. S. Cheong, S. Abdul Halim, S. Chaturvedi, M. Hashizume, G. E. Insarov, Y. Ishikawa, M. Jafari, A. Kitoh, J. Pulhin, C. Singh, K. Vasant, and Z. Zhang, 2022: Chapter 10: Asia. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter10.pdf ↩

126. Shaw, R., Y. Luo, T. S. Cheong, S. Abdul Halim, S. Chaturvedi, M. Hashizume, G. E. Insarov, Y. Ishikawa, M. Jafari, A. Kitoh, J. Pulhin, C. Singh, K. Vasant, and Z. Zhang, 2022: Chapter 10: Asia. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter10.pdf ↩

127. Shaw, R., Y. Luo, T. S. Cheong, S. Abdul Halim, S. Chaturvedi, M. Hashizume, G. E. Insarov, Y. Ishikawa, M. Jafari, A. Kitoh, J. Pulhin, C. Singh, K. Vasant, and Z. Zhang, 2022: Chapter 10: Asia. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter10.pdf ↩

128. Kang, Suchul; Eltahir, Elfatih A. B. (31 July 2018). "North China Plain threatened by deadly heatwaves due to climate change and irrigation". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 3528. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.3528K. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-38906-7. PMC 10319847. PMID 37402712. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10319847 ↩

129. Shaw, R., Y. Luo, T. S. Cheong, S. Abdul Halim, S. Chaturvedi, M. Hashizume, G. E. Insarov, Y. Ishikawa, M. Jafari, A. Kitoh, J. Pulhin, C. Singh, K. Vasant, and Z. Zhang, 2022: Chapter 10: Asia. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter10.pdf ↩

130. Shaw, R., Y. Luo, T. S. Cheong, S. Abdul Halim, S. Chaturvedi, M. Hashizume, G. E. Insarov, Y. Ishikawa, M. Jafari, A. Kitoh, J. Pulhin, C. Singh, K. Vasant, and Z. Zhang, 2022: Chapter 10: Asia. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter10.pdf ↩

131. Shaw, R., Y. Luo, T. S. Cheong, S. Abdul Halim, S. Chaturvedi, M. Hashizume, G. E. Insarov, Y. Ishikawa, M. Jafari, A. Kitoh, J. Pulhin, C. Singh, K. Vasant, and Z. Zhang, 2022: Chapter 10: Asia. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter10.pdf ↩

132. Shaw, R., Y. Luo, T. S. Cheong, S. Abdul Halim, S. Chaturvedi, M. Hashizume, G. E. Insarov, Y. Ishikawa, M. Jafari, A. Kitoh, J. Pulhin, C. Singh, K. Vasant, and Z. Zhang, 2022: Chapter 10: Asia. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter10.pdf ↩

133. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: April 2024". imf.org. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 ↩

134. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: April 2024". imf.org. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 ↩

135. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: April 2024". imf.org. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 ↩

136. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: April 2024". imf.org. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 ↩

137. Listed as "Hong Kong SAR" by IMF ↩

138. Listed as "Macao SAR" by IMF ↩

139. Listed as "Taiwan, Province of China" by IMF /wiki/Taiwan,_China ↩

140. "Country codes". iso.org. https://www.iso.org/iso-3166-country-codes.html ↩

141. "Country codes". iso.org. https://www.iso.org/iso-3166-country-codes.html ↩

142. "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022. https://population.un.org/wpp/ ↩

143. "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022. https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_General/WPP2022_GEN_F01_DEMOGRAPHIC_INDICATORS_COMPACT_REV1.xlsx ↩

144. "Human Development Reports". www.hdr.undp.org. January 2018. Retrieved 2018-10-14. http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update ↩

145. Includes all area which under PRC's government control (excluding "South Tibet" and disputed islands).[citation needed] /wiki/South_Tibet ↩

146. A note by the United Nations: "For statistical purposes, the data for China do not include Hong Kong and Macao, Special Administrative Regions (SAR) of China, and Taiwan Province of China."[101][102] /wiki/Taiwan,_China ↩

147. Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina (2012). "People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011" (PDF). Religions & Christianity in Today's China. II (3): 29–54. ISSN 2192-9289. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170427151725/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2012-3/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf ↩

148. Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina (2017). "Statistics on Religions and Churches in the People's Republic of China – Update for the Year 2016" (PDF). Religions & Christianity in Today's China. VII (2): 26–53. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170722112103/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2017-2/RCTC_2017-2.26-53_Wenzel-Teuber__Statistics_on_Religions_and_Churches_in_the_PRC_%E2%80%93_Update_for_the_Year_2016.pdf ↩

149. Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina (2017). "Statistics on Religions and Churches in the People's Republic of China – Update for the Year 2016" (PDF). Religions & Christianity in Today's China. VII (2): 26–53. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170722112103/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2017-2/RCTC_2017-2.26-53_Wenzel-Teuber__Statistics_on_Religions_and_Churches_in_the_PRC_%E2%80%93_Update_for_the_Year_2016.pdf ↩

150. Hardacre, Helen (2017). Shinto: a history. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-190-62171-1. 978-0-190-62171-1 ↩

151. "CIA Factbook". Archived from the original on 2016-10-13. Retrieved 2018-03-17. https://web.archive.org/web/20161013030611/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html ↩

152. 人口推計 – 平成 28年 12月 報 (PDF). stat.go.jp. 人口推計 – 平成 28年 12月 報 ↩

153. 주민등록 인구통계 https://jumin.mois.go.kr/ ↩

154. "Korea North". The World Factbook (2025 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 8 April 2023. (Archived 2023 edition.) https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/korea-north ↩

155. 재외동포현황 [Total number of overseas Koreans]. South Korea: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 2021. Retrieved 1 February 2022. 재외동포현황 ↩

156. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

157. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

158. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

159. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

160. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

161. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

162. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

163. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

164. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

165. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021". http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2021/indexee.htm ↩

166. Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (15th ed.). Dallas: SIL International. ISBN 978-1-55671-159-6. OCLC 224749653. 978-1-55671-159-6 ↩

167. "Ainu language and alphabet". https://www.omniglot.com/writing/ainu.htm ↩

168. Goscha, Christopher (2016). The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam: A History. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-1-846-143106. 978-1-846-143106 ↩

169. Kang, David C. (2012). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. Columbia University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-2-311-5319-5. 978-0-2-311-5319-5 ↩

170. Chua & Rubenfeld 2014, p. 122 - Chua, Amy; Rubenfeld, Jed (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-594-20546-0. ↩

171. Lewis, Mark Edward (2012). China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Belknap. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-674-06401-0. 978-0-674-06401-0 ↩

172. Reischauer, Edwin O. (1974). "The Sinic World in Perspective". Foreign Affairs. 52 (2): 341–348. doi:10.2307/20038053. JSTOR 20038053. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

173. Hazen, Dan; Spohrer, James H. (2005). Building Area Studies Collections. Otto Harrassowitz. p. 130. ISBN 978-3-447-05512-3. 978-3-447-05512-3 ↩

174. Chua & Rubenfeld 2014, p. 121–122 - Chua, Amy; Rubenfeld, Jed (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-594-20546-0. ↩

175. Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10108-2. 0-231-10108-2 ↩

176. Chua & Rubenfeld 2014, p. 121–122 - Chua, Amy; Rubenfeld, Jed (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-594-20546-0. ↩

177. Reischauer, Edwin O. (1974). "The Sinic World in Perspective". Foreign Affairs. 52 (2): 341–348. doi:10.2307/20038053. JSTOR 20038053. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

178. Chua & Rubenfeld 2014, p. 121–122 - Chua, Amy; Rubenfeld, Jed (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-594-20546-0. ↩

179. Goscha, Christopher (2016). The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam: A History. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-1-846-143106. 978-1-846-143106 ↩

180. Seo, Yongseok (2006-04-30), Dator, Jim; Pratt, Richard C.; Seo, Yongseok (eds.), "Chapter 22. East Asian Response to the Globalization of Culture: Perceptional Change and Cultural Policy", Fairness, Globalization, and Public Institutions: East Asia and Beyond, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 319–336, doi:10.1515/9780824841966-023/html?lang=en&srsltid=afmboorlr_g6zoxn9cj4zxog8odmpytphkz2ql0wqco_9yvf8y---dbx, ISBN 978-0-8248-4196-6, retrieved 2024-12-21 978-0-8248-4196-6 ↩

181. Hollingsworth, Julia (2019-12-29). "Why the past decade saw the rise and rise of East Asian pop culture". CNN. Retrieved 2024-11-18. https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/28/entertainment/east-asia-pop-culture-rise-intl-hnk/index.html ↩

182. Cho, Younghan (2016). "Double binding of Japanese colonialism: trajectories of baseball in Japan, Taiwan, and Korea". Cultural Studies. 30 (6): 926–948. doi:10.1080/09502386.2015.1094498. ISSN 0950-2386. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09502386.2015.1094498 ↩

183. 杜娟. "MLB's China operation knocking it out the ball park". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2024-10-22. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202108/20/WS611f1093a310efa1bd66a009.html ↩

184. United Nations (March 12, 2017). "The World's Cities in 2016" (PDF). United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2016_data_booklet.pdf ↩

185. 통계표명 : 주민등록 인구통계 (in Korean). Ministry of Government Administration and Home Affairs. Archived from the original on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2015. 통계표명 : 주민등록 인구통계 ↩