Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page
Pesticide
Substance used to destroy pests

Pesticides are substances that are used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others (see table). The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all pesticide use globally. Most pesticides are used as plant protection products (also known as crop protection products), which in general protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects. In general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent (such as a virus, bacterium, or fungus) that deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests. Target pests can include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and microbes that destroy property, cause nuisance, spread disease, or are disease vectors. Along with these benefits, pesticides also have drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other species.

Related Image Collections Add Image
Profiles
1 Image
We don't have any YouTube videos related to Pesticide yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to Pesticide yet.
We don't have any Books related to Pesticide yet.

Definition

Type of pesticideTarget pest group
Algicides or algaecidesAlgae
AvicidesBirds
BactericidesBacteria
FungicidesFungi and oomycetes
HerbicidesPlant
InsecticidesInsects
LampricidesLampreys4
Miticides or acaricidesMites
MolluscicidesSnails
NematicidesNematodes
RodenticidesRodents
SlimicidesAlgae, Bacteria, Fungi, and Slime molds
VirucidesViruses

The word pesticide derives from the Latin pestis (plague) and caedere (kill).5

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined pesticide as:

any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, or controlling any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals, causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport, or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or substances that may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids, or other pests in or on their bodies. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit. Also used as substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport.6

Classifications

Pesticides can be classified by target organism (e.g., herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, and pediculicides – see table),7

Biopesticides according to the EPA include microbial pesticides, biochemical pesticides, and plant-incorporated protectants.8

Pesticides can be classified into structural classes, with many structural classes developed for each of the target organisms listed in the table. A structural class is usually associated with a single mode of action, whereas a mode of action may encompass more than one structural class.

The pesticidal chemical (active ingredient) is mixed (formulated) with other components to form the product that is sold, and which is applied in various ways. Pesticides in gas form are fumigants.

Pesticides can be classified based upon their mode of action, which indicates the exact biological mechanism which the pesticide disrupts. The modes of action are important for resistance management, and are categorized and administered by the insecticide, herbicide, and fungicide resistance action committees.

Pesticides may be systemic or non-systemic.910 A systemic pesticide moves (translocates) inside the plant. Translocation may be upward in the xylem, or downward in the phloem or both. Non-systemic pesticides (contact pesticides) remain on the surface and act through direct contact with the target organism. Pesticides are more effective if they are systemic. Systemicity is a prerequisite for the pesticide to be used as a seed-treatment.

Pesticides can be classified as persistent (non-biodegradable) or non-persistent (biodegradable). A pesticide must be persistent enough to kill or control its target but must degrade fast enough not to accumulate in the environment or the food chain in order to be approved by the authorities.1112 Persistent pesticides, including DDT, were banned many years ago, an exception being spraying in houses to combat malaria vectors.13

History

From ancient times until the 1950s the pesticides used were inorganic compounds and plant extracts.1415 The inorganic compounds were derivatives of copper, arsenic, mercury, sulfur, among others, and the plant extracts contained pyrethrum, nicotine, and rotenone among others. The less toxic of these are still in use in organic farming. In the 1940s the insecticide DDT, and the herbicide 2,4-D, were introduced. These synthetic organic compounds were widely used and were very profitable. They were followed in the 1950s and 1960s by numerous other synthetic pesticides, which led to the growth of the pesticide industry.1617 During this period, it became increasingly evident that DDT, which had been sprayed widely in the environment to combat the vector, had accumulated in the food chain. It had become a global pollutant, as summarized in the well-known book Silent Spring. Finally, DDT was banned in the 1970s in several countries, and subsequently all persistent pesticides were banned worldwide, an exception being spraying on interior walls for vector control.18

Resistance to a pesticide was first seen in the 1920s with inorganic pesticides,19 and later it was found that development of resistance is to be expected, and measures to delay it are important. Integrated pest management (IPM) was introduced in the 1950s. By careful analysis and spraying only when an economical or biological threshold of crop damage is reached, pesticide application is reduced. This became in the 2020s the official policy of international organisations, industry, and many governments.20 With the introduction of high yielding varieties in the 1960s in the green revolution, more pesticides were used.21 Since the 1980s genetically modified crops were introduced, which resulted in lower amounts of insecticides used on them.22 Organic agriculture, which uses only non-synthetic pesticides, has grown and in 2020 represents about 1.5 per cent of the world's total agricultural land.23

Pesticides have become more effective. Application rates fell from 1,000 to 2,500 grams of active ingredient per hectare (g/ha) in the 1950s to 40–100 g/ha in the 2000s.24 Despite this, amounts used have increased. In high income countries over 20 years between the 1990s and 2010s amounts used increased 20%, while in the low income countries amounts increased 1623%.25

Development of new pesticides

The aim is to find new compounds or agents with improved properties such as a new mode of action or lower application rate. Another aim is to replace older pesticides which have been banned for reasons of toxicity or environmental harm or have become less effective due to development of resistance.26272829

The process starts with testing (screening) against target organisms such as insects, fungi or plants. Inputs are typically random compounds, natural products,30 compounds designed to disrupt a biochemical target, compounds described in patents or literature, or biocontrol organisms.

Compounds that are active in the screening process, known as hits or leads, cannot be used as pesticides, except for biocontrol organisms and some potent natural products. These lead compounds need to be optimised by a series of cycles of synthesis and testing of analogs. For approval by regulatory authorities for use as pesticides, the optimized compounds must meet several requirements.3132 In addition to being potent (low application rate), they must show low toxicity to non-target organisms, low environmental impact, and viable manufacturing cost. The cost of developing a pesticide in 2022 was estimated to be 350 million US dollars.33 It has become more difficult to find new pesticides. More than 100 new active ingredients were introduced in the 2000s and less than 40 in the 2010s.34 Biopesticides are cheaper to develop, since the authorities require less toxicological and environmental study. Since 2000 the rate of new biological product introduction has frequently exceeded that of conventional products.35

More than 25% of existing chemical pesticides contain one or more chiral centres (stereogenic centres).36 Newer pesticides with lower application rates tend to have more complex structures, and thus more often contain chiral centres.37 In cases when most or all of the pesticidal activity in a new compound is found in one enantiomer (the eutomer), the registration and use of the compound as this single enantiomer is preferred. This reduces the total application rate and avoids the tedious environmental testing required when registering a racemate.3839 However, if a viable enantioselective manufacturing route cannot be found, then the racemate is registered and used.

Uses

In addition to their main use in agriculture, pesticides have a number of other applications. Pesticides are used to control organisms that are considered to be harmful, or pernicious to their surroundings.40 For example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like West Nile virus, yellow fever, and malaria. They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as fleas.41 Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by moldy food or diseased produce. Herbicides can be used to clear roadside weeds, trees, and brush. They can also kill invasive weeds that may cause environmental damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant.42 Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mold can damage structures such as houses.43 Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain. Pesticides are used on lawns and golf courses, partly for cosmetic reasons.44

Integrated pest management, the use of multiple approaches to control pests, is becoming widespread and has been used with success in countries such as Indonesia, China, Bangladesh, the U.S., Australia, and Mexico.45 IPM attempts to recognize the more widespread impacts of an action on an ecosystem, so that natural balances are not upset.46

Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper pesticide use decreases these associated risks to a level deemed acceptable by pesticide regulatory agencies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) of Canada.

DDT, sprayed on the walls of houses, is an organochlorine that has been used to fight malaria vectors (mosquitos) since the 1940s. The World Health Organization recommend this approach.47 It and other organochlorine pesticides have been banned in most countries worldwide because of their persistence in the environment and human toxicity. DDT has become less effective, as resistance was identified in Africa as early as 1955, and by 1972 nineteen species of mosquito worldwide were resistant to DDT.4849

Amount used

Total pesticides use in agriculture in 2021 was 3.54 million tonnes of active ingredients (Mt), a 4 percent increase with respect to 2020, an 11 percent increase in a decade, and a doubling since 1990. Pesticides use per area of cropland in 2021 was 2.26 kg per hectare (kg/ha), an increase of 4 percent with respect to 2020; use per value of agricultural production was 0.86 kg per thousand international dollar (kg/1000 I$) (+2%); and use per person was 0.45 kg per capita (kg/cap) (+3%). Between 1990 and 2021, these indicators increased by 85 percent, 3 percent, and 33 percent, respectively. Brazil was the world's largest user of pesticides in 2021, with 720 kt of pesticides applications for agricultural use, while the USA (457 kt) was the second-largest user.5051

Applications per cropland area in 2021 varied widely, from 10.9 kg/hectare in Brazil to 0.8 kg/ha in the Russian Federation. The level in Brazil was about twice as high as in Argentina (5.6 kg/ha) and Indonesia (5.3 kg/ha).52 Insecticide use in the US has declined by more than half since 1980 (0.6%/yr), mostly due to the near phase-out of organophosphates. In corn fields, the decline was even steeper, due to the switchover to transgenic Bt corn.53

Benefits

Pesticides increase agricultural yields and lower costs.54 One study found that not using pesticides reduced crop yields by about 10%.55 Another study, conducted in 1999, found that a ban on pesticides in the United States may result in a rise of food prices, loss of jobs, and an increase in world hunger.56

There are two levels of benefits for pesticide use, primary and secondary. Primary benefits are direct gains from the use of pesticides and secondary benefits are effects that are more long-term.57

Biological

Controlling pests and plant disease vectors

Controlling human/livestock disease vectors and nuisance organisms

  • Human lives saved and disease reduced. Diseases controlled include malaria,58 with millions of lives having been saved or enhanced with the use of DDT alone.59
  • Animal lives saved and disease reduced

Controlling organisms that harm other human activities and structures

  • Drivers view unobstructed
  • Tree/brush/leaf hazards prevented
  • Wooden structures protected60

Economics

In 2018 world pesticide sales were estimated to be $65 billion, of which 88% was used for agriculture.61 Generic accounted for 85% of sales in 2018.62 In one study, it was estimated that for every dollar ($1) that is spent on pesticides for crops results in up to four dollars ($4) in crops which would otherwise be lost to insects, fungi and weeds.63 In general, farmers benefit from having an increase in crop yield and from being able to grow a variety of crops throughout the year. Consumers of agricultural products also benefit from being able to afford the vast quantities of produce available year-round.64

Disadvantages

On the cost side of pesticide use there can be costs to the environment and costs to human health.65 Pesticides safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and choosing less toxic pesticides may reduce risks placed on society and the environment from pesticide use.66

Health effects

Main article: Health effects of pesticides

Further information: Pesticide poisoning and Environmental impact of pesticides § Humans

Pesticides may affect health negatively.6768 mimicking hormones causing reproductive problems, and also causing cancer.69 A 2007 systematic review found that "most studies on non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia showed positive associations with pesticide exposure" and thus concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased.70 There is substantial evidence of associations between organophosphate insecticide exposures and neurobehavioral alterations.71727374 Limited evidence also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide exposure including neurological, birth defects, and fetal death.75

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends limiting exposure of children to pesticides and using safer alternatives:76

Pesticides are also found in majority of U.S. households with 88 million out of the 121.1 million households indicating that they use some form of pesticide in 2012.7778 As of 2007, there were more than 1,055 active ingredients registered as pesticides,79 which yield over 20,000 pesticide products that are marketed in the United States.80

Owing to inadequate regulation and safety precautions, 99% of pesticide-related deaths occur in developing countries that account for only 25% of pesticide usage.81

One study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides worldwide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticides that are most harmful to humans.82

2014 epidemiological review found associations between autism and exposure to certain pesticides, but noted that the available evidence was insufficient to conclude that the relationship was causal.83

Occupational exposure among agricultural workers

The World Health Organization and the UN Environment Programme estimate that 3 million agricultural workers in the developing world experience severe poisoning from pesticides each year, resulting in 18,000 deaths.84 According to one study, as many as 25 million workers in developing countries may suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly.85 Other occupational exposures besides agricultural workers, including pet groomers, groundskeepers, and fumigators, may also put individuals at risk of health effects from pesticides.86

Pesticide use is widespread in Latin America, as around US$3 billion are spent each year in the region. Records indicate an increase in the frequency of pesticide poisonings over the past two decades. The most common incidents of pesticide poisoning is thought to result from exposure to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides.87 At-home pesticide use, use of unregulated products, and the role of undocumented workers within the agricultural industry makes characterizing true pesticide exposure a challenge. It is estimated that 50–80% of pesticide poisoning cases are unreported.

Underreporting of pesticide poisoning is especially common in areas where agricultural workers are less likely to seek care from a healthcare facility that may be monitoring or tracking the incidence of acute poisoning. The extent of unintentional pesticide poisoning may be much greater than available data suggest, particularly among developing countries. Globally, agriculture and food production remain one of the largest industries. In East Africa, the agricultural industry represents one of the largest sectors of the economy, with nearly 80% of its population relying on agriculture for income.88 Farmers in these communities rely on pesticide products to maintain high crop yields.

Some East Africa governments are shifting to corporate farming, and opportunities for foreign conglomerates to operate commercial farms have led to more accessible research on pesticide use and exposure among workers. In other areas where large proportions of the population rely on subsistence, small-scale farming, estimating pesticide use and exposure is more difficult.

Pesticide poisoning

Pesticides may exhibit toxic effects on humans and other non-target species, the severity of which depends on the frequency and magnitude of exposure. Toxicity also depends on the rate of absorption, distribution within the body, metabolism, and elimination of compounds from the body. Commonly used pesticides like organophosphates and carbamates act by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activity, which prevents the breakdown of acetylcholine at the neural synapse. Excess acetylcholine can lead to symptoms like muscle cramps or tremors, confusion, dizziness and nausea. Studies show that farm workers in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Zimbabwe have decreased concentrations of plasma acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down acetylcholine acting on synapses throughout the nervous system.899091 Other studies in Ethiopia have observed reduced respiratory function among farm workers who spray crops with pesticides.92 Numerous exposure pathways for farm workers increase the risk of pesticide poisoning, including dermal absorption walking through fields and applying products, as well as inhalation exposure.

Measuring exposure to pesticides

There are multiple approaches to measuring a person's exposure to pesticides, each of which provides an estimate of an individual's internal dose. Two broad approaches include measuring biomarkers and markers of biological effect.93 The former involves taking direct measurement of the parent compound or its metabolites in various types of media: urine, blood, serum. Biomarkers may include a direct measurement of the compound in the body before it's been biotransformed during metabolism. Other suitable biomarkers may include the metabolites of the parent compound after they've been biotransformed during metabolism.94 Toxicokinetic data can provide more detailed information on how quickly the compound is metabolized and eliminated from the body, and provide insights into the timing of exposure.

Markers of biological effect provide an estimation of exposure based on cellular activities related to the mechanism of action. For example, many studies investigating exposure to pesticides often involve the quantification of the acetylcholinesterase enzyme at the neural synapse to determine the magnitude of the inhibitory effect of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides.95969798

Another method of quantifying exposure involves measuring, at the molecular level, the amount of pesticide interacting with the site of action. These methods are more commonly used for occupational exposures where the mechanism of action is better understood, as described by WHO guidelines published in "Biological Monitoring of Chemical Exposure in the Workplace".99 Better understanding of how pesticides elicit their toxic effects is needed before this method of exposure assessment can be applied to occupational exposure of agricultural workers.

Alternative methods to assess exposure include questionnaires to discern from participants whether they are experiencing symptoms associated with pesticide poisoning. Self-reported symptoms may include headaches, dizziness, nausea, joint pain, or respiratory symptoms.100

Challenges in assessing pesticide exposure

Multiple challenges exist in assessing exposure to pesticides in the general population, and many others that are specific to occupational exposures of agricultural workers. Beyond farm workers, estimating exposure to family members and children presents additional challenges, and may occur through "take-home" exposure from pesticide residues collected on clothing or equipment belonging to parent farm workers and inadvertently brought into the home. Children may also be exposed to pesticides prenatally from mothers who are exposed to pesticides during pregnancy.101 Characterizing children's exposure resulting from drift of airborne and spray application of pesticides is similarly challenging, yet well documented in developing countries.102 Because of critical development periods of the fetus and newborn children, these non-working populations are more vulnerable to the effects of pesticides, and may be at increased risk of developing neurocognitive effects and impaired development.103104

While measuring biomarkers or markers of biological effects may provide more accurate estimates of exposure, collecting these data in the field is often impractical and many methods are not sensitive enough to detect low-level concentrations. Rapid cholinesterase test kits exist to collect blood samples in the field. Conducting large scale assessments of agricultural workers in remote regions of developing countries makes the implementation of these kits a challenge.105 The cholinesterase assay is a useful clinical tool to assess individual exposure and acute toxicity. Considerable variability in baseline enzyme activity among individuals makes it difficult to compare field measurements of cholinesterase activity to a reference dose to determine health risk associated with exposure.106 Another challenge in deriving a reference dose is identifying health endpoints that are relevant to exposure. More epidemiological research is needed to identify critical health endpoints, particularly among populations who are occupationally exposed.

Prevention

Minimizing harmful exposure to pesticides can be achieved by proper use of personal protective equipment, adequate reentry times into recently sprayed areas, and effective product labeling for hazardous substances as per FIFRA regulations. Training high-risk populations, including agricultural workers, on the proper use and storage of pesticides, can reduce the incidence of acute pesticide poisoning and potential chronic health effects associated with exposure. Continued research into the human toxic health effects of pesticides serves as a basis for relevant policies and enforceable standards that are health protective to all populations.

Environmental effects

Main article: Environmental effects of pesticides

Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil.107 Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and some pesticides were persistent organic pollutants (now banned), which contribute to soil and flower (pollen, nectar) contamination.108 Furthermore, pesticide use can adversely impact neighboring agricultural activity, as pests themselves drift to and harm nearby crops that have no pesticide used on them.109

In addition, pesticide use reduces invertebrate biodiversity in streams,110 contributes to pollinator decline,111112113 destroys habitat (especially for birds),114 and threatens endangered species.115 Pests can develop a resistance to the pesticide (pesticide resistance), necessitating a new pesticide. Alternatively a greater dose of the pesticide can be used to counteract the resistance, although this will cause a worsening of the ambient pollution problem.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants banned all persistent pesticides,116117 in particular DDT and other organochlorine pesticides, which were stable and lipophilic, and thus able to bioaccumulate118 in the body and the food chain. and which spread throughout the planet.119120 Persistent pesticides are no longer used for agriculture, and will not be approved by the authorities.121122 Because the half life in soil is long (for DDT 2–15 years123) residues can still be detected in humans at levels 5 to 10 times lower than found in the 1970s.124

Pesticides now have to be degradable in the environment. Such degradation of pesticides is due to both innate chemical properties of the compounds and environmental processes or conditions.125 For example, the presence of halogens within a chemical structure often slows down degradation in an aerobic environment.126 Adsorption to soil may retard pesticide movement, but also may reduce bioavailability to microbial degraders.127

Pesticide contamination in the environment can be monitored through bioindicators such as bee pollinators.128

Economics

HarmAnnual US cost
Public health$1.1 billion
Pesticide resistance in pest$1.5 billion
Crop losses caused by pesticides$1.4 billion
Bird losses due to pesticides$2.2 billion
Groundwater contamination$2.0 billion
Other costs$1.4 billion
Total costs$9.6 billion

In one study, the human health and environmental costs due to pesticides in the United States was estimated to be $9.6 billion: offset by about $40 billion in increased agricultural production.129

Additional costs include the registration process and the cost of purchasing pesticides: which are typically borne by agrichemical companies and farmers respectively. The registration process can take several years to complete (there are 70 types of field tests) and can cost $50–70 million for a single pesticide.130 At the beginning of the 21st century, the United States spent approximately $10 billion on pesticides annually.131

Resistance

Main article: Pesticide resistance

The use of pesticides inherently entails the risk of resistance developing. Various techniques and procedures of pesticide application can slow the development of resistance, as can some natural features of the target population and surrounding environment.132

Alternatives

Alternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of cultivation, use of biological pest controls (such as pheromones and microbial pesticides), genetic engineering (mostly of crops), and methods of interfering with insect breeding.133 Application of composted yard waste has also been used as a way of controlling pests.134

These methods are becoming increasingly popular and often are safer than traditional chemical pesticides. In addition, EPA is registering reduced-risk pesticides in increasing numbers.

Cultivation practices

Cultivation practices include polyculture (growing multiple types of plants), crop rotation, planting crops in areas where the pests that damage them do not live, timing planting according to when pests will be least problematic, and use of trap crops that attract pests away from the real crop.135 Trap crops have successfully controlled pests in some commercial agricultural systems while reducing pesticide usage.136 In other systems, trap crops can fail to reduce pest densities at a commercial scale, even when the trap crop works in controlled experiments.137

Use of other organisms

Release of other organisms that fight the pest is another example of an alternative to pesticide use. These organisms can include natural predators or parasites of the pests.138 Biological pesticides based on entomopathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses causing disease in the pest species can also be used.139

Biological control engineering

Interfering with insects' reproduction can be accomplished by sterilizing males of the target species and releasing them, so that they mate with females but do not produce offspring.140 This technique was first used on the screwworm fly in 1958 and has since been used with the medfly, the tsetse fly,141 and the gypsy moth.142 This is a costly and slow approach that only works on some types of insects.143

Other alternatives

Other alternatives include "laserweeding" – the use of novel agricultural robots for weed control using lasers.144

Push pull strategy

Push-pull technique: intercropping with a "push" crop that repels the pest, and planting a "pull" crop on the boundary that attracts and traps it.145

Effectiveness

Some evidence shows that alternatives to pesticides can be equally effective as the use of chemicals. A study of Maize fields in northern Florida found that the application of composted yard waste with high carbon to nitrogen ratio to agricultural fields was highly effective at reducing the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and increasing crop yield, with yield increases ranging from 10% to 212%; the observed effects were long-term, often not appearing until the third season of the study.146 Additional silicon nutrition protects some horticultural crops against fungal diseases almost completely, while insufficient silicon sometimes leads to severe infection even when fungicides are used.147

Pesticide resistance is increasing and that may make alternatives more attractive.

Types

Biopesticides

Main article: Biopesticide

Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. For example, canola oil and baking soda have pesticidal applications and are considered biopesticides. Biopesticides fall into three major classes:

  • Microbial pesticides which consist of bacteria, entomopathogenic fungi or viruses (and sometimes includes the metabolites that bacteria or fungi produce). Entomopathogenic nematodes are also often classed as microbial pesticides, even though they are multi-cellular.148149
  • Biochemical pesticides or herbal pesticides150 are naturally occurring substances that control (or monitor in the case of pheromones) pests and microbial diseases.
  • Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) have genetic material from other species incorporated into their genetic material (i.e. GM crops). Their use is controversial, especially in many European countries.151

By pest type

Pesticides that are related to the type of pests are:152

TypeAction
AlgicidesControl algae in lakes, canals, swimming pools, water tanks, and other sites
Avicideskill birds
Antifouling agentsKill or repel organisms that attach to underwater surfaces, such as boat bottoms
AntimicrobialsKill microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses)
AttractantsAttract pests (for example, to lure an insect or rodent to a trap).
BactericidesKill bacteria
BiopesticidesCertain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals
BiocidesKill microorganisms
DefoliantsCause leaves or foliage to drop from a plant, usually to facilitate harvest.
DesiccantsPromote drying of living tissues, such as unwanted plant tops.
Disinfectants and sanitizersKill or inactivate disease-producing microorganisms on inanimate objects
FungicidesKill fungi (including blights, mildews, molds, and rusts)
FumigantsProduce gas or vapor intended to destroy pests in buildings or soil
Gene drivesA genetic mechanism embedded into the genetic material of the target species, which can kill or suppress the reproductive of its descendants.153
HerbicidesKill weeds and other plants that grow where they are not wanted
Insect growth regulatorsDisrupt the molting, maturing from pupal stage to adult, or other life processes of insects.
InsecticidesKill insects and other arthropods
LampricidesKills Lampreys
Miticides or acaricidesKill mites that feed on plants and animals
Microbial pesticidesMicroorganisms that kill, inhibit, or out compete pests, including insects or other microorganisms
MolluscicidesKill snails and slugs
NematicidesKill nematodes (microscopic, worm-like organisms that feed on plant roots)
OvicidesKill eggs of insects and mites
PheromonesBiochemicals used to disrupt the mating behavior of insects
PiscicideKills fish
Plant growth regulatorsAlter the expected growth, flowering or reproduction rate of plants (does not include fertilizers).
Plant Incorporated protectantsSubstances that plants produce from genetic material that has been added to the plant.
RepellentsRepel pests, including insects (such as mosquitoes) and birds
RodenticidesControl mice and other rodents
SlimicidesKill slime-producing microorganisms such as algae, bacteria, fungi, and slime molds
Soil sterilantTemporarily or permanently prevents the growth of all plants and animals154
VirucidesKills viruses.
Wood preservativesUsed to make wood resistant to insects, fungi, and other pests.

Regulation

International

In many countries, pesticides must be approved for sale and use by a government agency.155156

Worldwide, 85% of countries have pesticide legislation for the proper storage of pesticides and 51% include provisions to ensure proper disposal of all obsolete pesticides.157

Though pesticide regulations differ from country to country, pesticides, and products on which they were used are traded across international borders. To deal with inconsistencies in regulations among countries, delegates to a conference of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization adopted an International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985 to create voluntary standards of pesticide regulation for many countries.158 The Code was updated in 1998 and 2002.159 The FAO claims that the code has raised awareness about pesticide hazards and decreased the number of countries without restrictions on pesticide use.160

Three other efforts to improve regulation of international pesticide trade are the United Nations London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade and the United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission. The former seeks to implement procedures for ensuring that prior informed consent exists between countries buying and selling pesticides, while the latter seeks to create uniform standards for maximum levels of pesticide residues among participating countries.161

United States

Main article: Pesticide regulation in the United States

In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for regulating pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA).162

Studies must be conducted to establish the conditions in which the material is safe to use and the effectiveness against the intended pest(s).163 The EPA regulates pesticides to ensure that these products do not pose adverse effects to humans or the environment, with an emphasis on the health and safety of children.164 Pesticides produced before November 1984 continue to be reassessed in order to meet the current scientific and regulatory standards. All registered pesticides are reviewed every 15 years to ensure they meet the proper standards.165 During the registration process, a label is created. The label contains directions for proper use of the material in addition to safety restrictions. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a Toxicity Class. Pesticides are the most thoroughly tested chemicals after drugs in the United States; those used on food require more than 100 tests to determine a range of potential impacts.166

Some pesticides are considered too hazardous for sale to the general public and are designated restricted use pesticides. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides.167 Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.168169 These records must be made available to employees and state or territorial environmental regulatory agencies.170171

In addition to the EPA, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) set standards for the level of pesticide residue that is allowed on or in crops.172 The EPA looks at what the potential human health and environmental effects might be associated with the use of the pesticide.173

In addition, the U.S. EPA uses the National Research Council's four-step process for human health risk assessment: (1) Hazard Identification, (2) Dose-Response Assessment, (3) Exposure Assessment, and (4) Risk Characterization.174

In 2013 Kaua'i County (Hawai'i) passed Bill No. 2491 to add an article to Chapter 22 of the county's code relating to pesticides and GMOs. The bill strengthens protections of local communities in Kaua'i where many large pesticide companies test their products.175

The first legislation providing federal authority for regulating pesticides was enacted in 1910.176

Canada

Main article: Pest Management Regulatory Agency

EU

Main article: Regulation of pesticides in the European Union

EU legislation has been approved banning the use of highly toxic pesticides including those that are carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic to reproduction, those that are endocrine-disrupting, and those that are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) or very persistent and very bioaccumulative (vPvB) and measures have been approved to improve the general safety of pesticides across all EU member states.177

In 2023 The Environment Committee of European Parliament approved a decision aiming to reduce pesticide use by 50% (the most hazardous by 65%) by the year 2030 and ensure sustainable use of pesticides (for example use them only as a last resort). The decision also includes measures for providing farmers with alternatives.178

Residue

Main article: Pesticide residue

Pesticide residue refers to the pesticides that may remain on or in food after they are applied to food crops.179 The maximum residue limits (MRL) of pesticides in food are carefully set by the regulatory authorities to ensure, to their best judgement, no health impacts. Regulations such as pre-harvest intervals also often prevent harvest of crop or livestock products if recently treated in order to allow residue concentrations to decrease over time to safe levels before harvest. Exposure of the general population to these residues most commonly occurs through consumption of treated food sources, or being in close contact to areas treated with pesticides such as farms or lawns.180

Persistent pesticides are no longer used for agriculture, and will not be approved by the authorities.181182 Because the half life in soil is long (for DDT 2–15 years183) residues can still be detected in humans at levels 5 to 10 times lower than found in the 1970s.184

Residues are monitored by the authorities. In 2016, over 99% of samples of US produce had no pesticide residue or had residue levels well below the EPA tolerance levels for each pesticide.185

See also

Bibliography

  • Davis, Frederick Rowe. "Pesticides and the perils of synecdoche in the history of science and environmental history." History of Science 57.4 (2019): 469–492.
  • Davis, Frederick Rowe. Banned: a history of pesticides and the science of toxicology (Yale UP, 2014).
  • Matthews, Graham A. A history of pesticides (CABI, 2018).
  • S.Safe, H.Plugge, J.F.S.Crocker (1977). "Analysis of an aromatic solvent used in a forest spray program". Chemosphere. 6 (10): 641–651. Bibcode:1977Chmsp...6..641S. doi:10.1016/0045-6535(77)90075-3.

Sources

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pesticides.

References

  1. "Basic Information about Pesticide Ingredients". Environmental Protection Agency. Apr 2, 2018. Retrieved 2018-12-01. https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/basic-information-about-pesticide-ingredients ↩

  2. Randall C, Hock W, Crow E, Hudak-Wise C, Kasai J (2014). "Pest Management". National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual (2nd ed.). Washington: National Association of State Departments of Agriculture Research Foundation. Archived from the original on 2019-12-10. Retrieved 2018-12-01. https://web.archive.org/web/20191210080506/https://www.nasda.org/foundation/pesticide-applicator-certification-and-training ↩

  3. "Pesticide Industry Sales and Usage, 2008 – 2012 Market Estimates" (PDF). EPA. Retrieved 2023-02-17. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-01/documents/pesticides-industry-sales-usage-2016_0.pdf ↩

  4. Dunlop ES, McLaughlin R, Adams JV, Jones M, Birceanu O, Christie MR, et al. (2018). "Rapid evolution meets invasive species control: the potential for pesticide resistance in sea lamprey". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 75 (1). National Research Council Canada: 152–168. Bibcode:2018CJFAS..75..152D. doi:10.1139/cjfas-2017-0015. hdl:1807/78674. ISSN 0706-652X. /wiki/Canadian_Journal_of_Fisheries_and_Aquatic_Sciences ↩

  5. Sykes JB (1989). The Concise Oxford dictionary of current english (7th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861131-8. OCLC 848516593. 978-0-19-861131-8 ↩

  6. "International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20130404190746/http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/Code/Download/code.pdf ↩

  7. "Types of pesticides". National Pesticide Information Center. Retrieved 2024-01-04. http://npic.orst.edu/ingred/ptype/index.html ↩

  8. "Types of Pesticide Ingredients". US Environmental Protection Agency. Jan 3, 2017. Retrieved 2018-12-01. https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/types-pesticide-ingredients ↩

  9. Zhang Y, Lorsbach BA, Castetter S, Lambert WT, Kister J, Wang NX, et al. (2018). "Physicochemical property guidelines for modern agrochemicals". Pest Management Science. 74 (9): 1979–1991. doi:10.1002/ps.5037. PMID 29667318. S2CID 4937939. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  10. Hofstetter S (2018). "How To Design for a Tailored Subcellular Distribution of Systemic Agrochemicals in Plant Tissues" (PDF). J. Agric. Food Chem. 66 (33): 8687–8697. Bibcode:2018JAFC...66.8687H. doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02221. PMID 30024749. S2CID 261974999. https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/167227061/Rev_Hofstetter_et_al_intracellular_localization_of_agrochemicals.pdf ↩

  11. "About Pesticide Registration". Environmental Protection Agency. Jan 25, 2023. Retrieved 2023-12-13. https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/about-pesticide-registration#registration ↩

  12. "Approval of active substances". European Commission. Retrieved 2023-12-13. https://food.ec.europa.eu/plants/pesticides/approval-active-substances_en ↩

  13. Lobe J (Sep 16, 2006). "WHO urges DDT for malaria control Strategies". Common Dreams News Center. Inter Press Service. Archived from the original on 2006-10-17. Retrieved 2007-09-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20061017195527/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0916-05.htm ↩

  14. Mathews GA (2018). A history of pesticides. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI. ISBN 978-1-78639-487-3. 978-1-78639-487-3 ↩

  15. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  16. Mathews GA (2018). A history of pesticides. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI. ISBN 978-1-78639-487-3. 978-1-78639-487-3 ↩

  17. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  18. Lobe J (Sep 16, 2006). "WHO urges DDT for malaria control Strategies". Common Dreams News Center. Inter Press Service. Archived from the original on 2006-10-17. Retrieved 2007-09-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20061017195527/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0916-05.htm ↩

  19. Mathews GA (2018). A history of pesticides. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI. ISBN 978-1-78639-487-3. 978-1-78639-487-3 ↩

  20. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  21. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  22. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  23. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  24. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  25. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  26. Umetsu N (May 2020). "Development of novel pesticides in the 21st century". Journal of Pesticide Science. 45 (2): 54–74. doi:10.1584/jpestics.D20-201. PMC 7581488. PMID 33132734. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7581488 ↩

  27. Sparks TC (2021). "Crop protection compounds - trends and perspective". Pest Management Science. 77 (8): 3608–3616. doi:10.1002/ps.6293. PMID 33486823. S2CID 231704006. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  28. Ling K (2014). "Discovery of Agrochemicals" (PDF). Oxford University. Retrieved 2023-12-13. http://www.oxfordsynthesiscdt.ox.ac.uk/resources/SBM-CDT-Agrochemistry.pdf ↩

  29. Bebber DP, Gurr SJ (2015). "Crop-destroying fungal and oomycete pathogens challenge food security". Fungal Genetics and Biology. 74. Academic Press: 62–64. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2014.10.012. ISSN 1087-1845. PMID 25459533. /wiki/Fungal_Genetics_and_Biology ↩

  30. Sparks TC (2023). "Natural Product-Based Crop Protection Compounds─Origins and Future Prospects". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 71 (5): 2259–2269. Bibcode:2023JAFC...71.2259S. doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.2c06938. PMID 36693160. S2CID 256230724. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  31. "About Pesticide Registration". Environmental Protection Agency. Jan 25, 2023. Retrieved 2023-12-13. https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/about-pesticide-registration#registration ↩

  32. "Approval of active substances". European Commission. Retrieved 2023-12-13. https://food.ec.europa.eu/plants/pesticides/approval-active-substances_en ↩

  33. Sparks T (May 2023). "Insecticide discovery–"Chance favors the prepared mind"". Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 192: 105412. Bibcode:2023PBioP.19205412S. doi:10.1016/j.pestbp.2023.105412. PMID 37105622. S2CID 257790593. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  34. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  35. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  36. Ulrich EM, Morrison CN, Goldsmith MR, Foreman WT (2012). "Chiral Pesticides: Identification, Description, and Environmental Implications". Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. Vol. 217. Boston: Springer US. pp. 1–74. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2329-4_1. ISBN 978-1-4614-2328-7. ISSN 0179-5953. PMID 22350557. (WTF RID: N-2573-2016). 978-1-4614-2328-7 ↩

  37. Ulrich EM, Morrison CN, Goldsmith MR, Foreman WT (2012). "Chiral Pesticides: Identification, Description, and Environmental Implications". Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. Vol. 217. Boston: Springer US. pp. 1–74. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2329-4_1. ISBN 978-1-4614-2328-7. ISSN 0179-5953. PMID 22350557. (WTF RID: N-2573-2016). 978-1-4614-2328-7 ↩

  38. Bura L (2019). "2019". ESFA Journal. 17 (8): e05804. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5804. PMC 7009100. PMID 32626414. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7009100 ↩

  39. "Interim Policy for Evaluation of Stereoisomeric Pesticides". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Oct 26, 2000. Retrieved 2023-12-04. https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-science-and-assessing-pesticide-risks/interim-policy-evaluation-stereoisomeric-pesticides ↩

  40. Whitford F (2009). The Benefits of Pesticides, A Story Worth Telling (PDF). Purdue Extension. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/ppp/ppp-70.pdf ↩

  41. Whitford F (2009). The Benefits of Pesticides, A Story Worth Telling (PDF). Purdue Extension. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/ppp/ppp-70.pdf ↩

  42. Helfrich LA, Weigmann DL, Hipkins P, Stinson ER (Jun 1996). "Pesticides and aquatic animals: A guide to reducing impacts on aquatic systems". Virginia Cooperative Extension. Archived from the original on 2009-03-05. Retrieved 2007-10-14. https://web.archive.org/web/20090305060503/http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/420-013/420-013.html ↩

  43. Whitford F (2009). The Benefits of Pesticides, A Story Worth Telling (PDF). Purdue Extension. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/ppp/ppp-70.pdf ↩

  44. Robbins P (2003). "The Lawn-Chemical Economy and Its Discontents". Antipode. 35 (5): 955–979. Bibcode:2003Antip..35..955R. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2003.00366.x. S2CID 154002130. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  45. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  46. Daly HV, Doyen JT, Purcell AH (1998). "Chapter 14". Introduction to insect biology and diversity (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 279–300. ISBN 978-0-19-510033-4. OCLC 37211384. 978-0-19-510033-4 ↩

  47. "WHO gives indoor use of DDT a clean bill of health for controlling malaria". WHO. Sep 15, 2006. Archived from the original on 2006-09-21. Retrieved 2007-09-13. https://web.archive.org/web/20060921220230/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr50/en/ ↩

  48. "In Depth: DDT & Malaria". PAN Magazine. Archived from the original on 2008-01-18. https://web.archive.org/web/20080118043120/http://magazine.panna.org/summer2006/inDepthDDT.html ↩

  49. "A Story to be Shared: the Successful Fight Against Malaria in Vietnam" (PDF). WHO WPRO. Nov 6, 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2003-10-05. https://web.archive.org/web/20031005062640/http://www.afronets.org/files/malaria.pdf ↩

  50. "Pesticides use and trade 1990–2021" (PDF). Food and agricultural organisation of the united nations. 2023. Retrieved 2024-01-15. https://www.fao.org/3/cc6958en/cc6958en.pdf ↩

  51. World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023. doi:10.4060/cc8166en. ISBN 978-92-5-138262-2. Retrieved 2023-12-13 – via FAODocuments. 978-92-5-138262-2 ↩

  52. "Pesticides use and trade 1990–2021" (PDF). Food and agricultural organisation of the united nations. 2023. Retrieved 2024-01-15. https://www.fao.org/3/cc6958en/cc6958en.pdf ↩

  53. "Infographic: Pesticide Planet". Science. 341 (6147): 730–1. Aug 2013. Bibcode:2013Sci...341..730.. doi:10.1126/science.341.6147.730. PMID 23950524. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  54. Kellogg RL, Nehring RF, Grube A, Goss DW, Plotkin S (2002). "Environmental Indicators of Pesticide Leaching and Runoff from Farm Fields". In Ball VE, Norton GW (eds.). Agricultural Productivity. Studies in Productivity and Efficiency. Vol. 2. Boston: Springer. pp. 213–56. ISBN 978-1-4613-5270-9. Archived from the original on 2002-06-18. 978-1-4613-5270-9 ↩

  55. Saitoh K, Kuroda T, Kumano S (2001). "Effects of Organic Fertilization and Pesticide Application on Growth and Yield of Field-Grown Rice for 10 Years". Japanese Journal of Crop Science (in Japanese). 70 (4): 530–540. doi:10.1626/jcs.70.530. https://doi.org/10.1626%2Fjcs.70.530 ↩

  56. Knutson R (1999). "Economic Impact of Reduced Pesticide Use in the United States: Measurement of Costs and Benefits" (PDF). AFPC Policy Issues. 99 (2). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-12-03. https://www.afpc.tamu.edu/research/publications/148/99-2.pdf ↩

  57. Cooper J, Dobson H (2007). "The benefits of pesticides to mankind and the environment" (PDF). Crop Protection. 26 (9): 1337–1348. Bibcode:2007CrPro..26.1337C. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2007.03.022. S2CID 84808730. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20110927225454/https://croplifefoundation.org/Documents/Research%20Briefs/PesticideBenefitsResearchPaper.pdf ↩

  58. Cooper J, Dobson H (2007). "The benefits of pesticides to mankind and the environment" (PDF). Crop Protection. 26 (9): 1337–1348. Bibcode:2007CrPro..26.1337C. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2007.03.022. S2CID 84808730. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20110927225454/https://croplifefoundation.org/Documents/Research%20Briefs/PesticideBenefitsResearchPaper.pdf ↩

  59. Yamey G (May 2004). "Roll Back Malaria: a failing global health campaign". BMJ. 328 (7448): 1086–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7448.1086. PMC 406307. PMID 15130956. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC406307 ↩

  60. Cooper J, Dobson H (2007). "The benefits of pesticides to mankind and the environment" (PDF). Crop Protection. 26 (9): 1337–1348. Bibcode:2007CrPro..26.1337C. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2007.03.022. S2CID 84808730. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20110927225454/https://croplifefoundation.org/Documents/Research%20Briefs/PesticideBenefitsResearchPaper.pdf ↩

  61. "Chapter 2. Status and trends of pesticide use" (PDF). Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticides and Fertilizers and Ways of Minimizing Them. Envisioning A Chemical-Safe World. United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]. 2022. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40351/Pesticides_Ch2.pdf ↩

  62. Mansfield B, Werner M, Berndt C (2024). "A new critical social science research agenda on pesticides". Agriculture and Human Values. 41 (2): 395–412. doi:10.1007/s10460-023-10492-w. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10460-023-10492-w ↩

  63. Pimentel D, Acquay H, Biltonen M, Rice P, Silva M (1992). "Environmental and Economic Costs of Pesticide Use". BioScience. 42 (10): 750–60. doi:10.2307/1311994. JSTOR 1311994. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  64. Cooper J, Dobson H (2007). "The benefits of pesticides to mankind and the environment" (PDF). Crop Protection. 26 (9): 1337–1348. Bibcode:2007CrPro..26.1337C. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2007.03.022. S2CID 84808730. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20110927225454/https://croplifefoundation.org/Documents/Research%20Briefs/PesticideBenefitsResearchPaper.pdf ↩

  65. Fantke P, Friedrich R, Jolliet O (Nov 2012). "Health impact and damage cost assessment of pesticides in Europe". Environment International. 49: 9–17. Bibcode:2012EnInt..49....9F. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2012.08.001. PMID 22940502. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  66. Helfrich LA, Weigmann DL, Hipkins P, Stinson ER (Jun 1996). "Pesticides and aquatic animals: A guide to reducing impacts on aquatic systems". Virginia Cooperative Extension. Archived from the original on 2009-03-05. Retrieved 2007-10-14. https://web.archive.org/web/20090305060503/http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/420-013/420-013.html ↩

  67. "National Assessment of the Worker Protection Workshop #3". Pesticides: Health and Safety. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Aug 30, 2007. Archived from the original on 2009-09-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20090927235545/http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/newnote/workshop3.htm ↩

  68. "Occupational exposure to chemicals and hearing impairment" (PDF). norskoljeoggass.no. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-29. https://www.norskoljeoggass.no/globalassets/dokumenter/drift/arbeidsmiljo/kjemisk-arbeidsmiljo/fagtema/horselsskadelige-kjemikalier/occupational-exposure-to-chemicals-and-hearing-impairment.pdf ↩

  69. "Human Health Issues". Pesticides: Health and Safety. US EPA. Jun 28, 2006. Archived from the original on 2015-05-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20150528144110/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/human.htm ↩

  70. Bassil KL, Vakil C, Sanborn M, Cole DC, Kaur JS, Kerr KJ (Oct 2007). "Cancer health effects of pesticides: systematic review". Canadian Family Physician. 53 (10): 1704–11. PMC 2231435. PMID 17934034. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2231435 ↩

  71. Jurewicz J, Hanke W (2008). "Prenatal and Childhood Exposure to Pesticides and Neurobehavioral Development: Review of Epidemiological Studies". International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. 21 (2): 121–32. doi:10.2478/v10001-008-0014-z (inactive Feb 17, 2025). ISSN 1896-494X. PMID 18614459.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025 (link) http://oldwww.imp.lodz.pl/home_en/publishing_office/journals_/_ijomeh/&articleId=20947&l=PL ↩

  72. Weselak M, Arbuckle TE, Foster W (2007). "Pesticide exposures and developmental outcomes: the epidemiological evidence". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews. 10 (1–2): 41–80. Bibcode:2007JTEHB..10...41W. doi:10.1080/10937400601034571. PMID 18074304. S2CID 25304655. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  73. Wigle DT, Arbuckle TE, Turner MC, Bérubé A, Yang Q, Liu S, et al. (May 2008). "Epidemiologic evidence of relationships between reproductive and child health outcomes and environmental chemical contaminants". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews. 11 (5–6): 373–517. Bibcode:2008JTEHB..11..373W. doi:10.1080/10937400801921320. PMID 18470797. S2CID 33463851. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  74. Mink PJ, Mandel JS, Lundin JI, Sceurman BK (Nov 2011). "Epidemiologic studies of glyphosate and non-cancer health outcomes: a review". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 61 (2): 172–84. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.07.006. PMID 21798302. /wiki/Regulatory_Toxicology_and_Pharmacology ↩

  75. Sanborn M, Kerr KJ, Sanin LH, Cole DC, Bassil KL, Vakil C (Oct 2007). "Non-cancer health effects of pesticides: systematic review and implications for family doctors". Canadian Family Physician. 53 (10): 1712–20. PMC 2231436. PMID 17934035. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2231436 ↩

  76. Roberts JR, Karr CJ, et al. (Council On Environmental Health) (Dec 2012). "Pesticide exposure in children". Pediatrics. 130 (6): e1757–63. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-2757. PMID 23184103. https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2012-2757 ↩

  77. "Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage 2008–2012" (PDF). US EPA. 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-04-17. Retrieved 2012-03-26. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-01/documents/pesticides-industry-sales-usage-2016_0.pdf ↩

  78. "U.S.: Number of households 1960–2017". Statista. Retrieved 2018-03-26. https://www.statista.com/statistics/183635/number-of-households-in-the-us/ ↩

  79. Goldman LR (2007). "Managing pesticide chronic health risks: U.S. policies". Journal of Agromedicine. 12 (1): 67–75. doi:10.1300/J096v12n02_08. PMID 18032337. S2CID 216149465. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  80. "Pesticide Illness & Injury Surveillance". CDC.gov. NIOSH. Feb 7, 2017. Retrieved 2014-01-28. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/pesticides/ ↩

  81. Goldmann L (May 2004). Childhood Pesticide Poisoning: Information for Advocacy and Action (PDF) (Report). WHO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-05-17. https://web.archive.org/web/20090517035747/https://www.who.int/ceh/publications/pestpoisoning.pdf ↩

  82. Gunnell D, Eddleston M, Phillips MR, Konradsen F (Dec 2007). "The global distribution of fatal pesticide self-poisoning: systematic review". BMC Public Health. 7 (1): 357. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-7-357. PMC 2262093. PMID 18154668. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2262093 ↩

  83. Kalkbrenner AE, Schmidt RJ, Penlesky AC (Nov 2014). "Environmental chemical exposures and autism spectrum disorders: a review of the epidemiological evidence". Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care. 44 (10): 277–318. doi:10.1016/j.cppeds.2014.06.001. PMC 4855851. PMID 25199954. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4855851 ↩

  84. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  85. Jeyaratnam J (1990). "Acute pesticide poisoning: a major global health problem". World Health Statistics Quarterly. Rapport Trimestriel de Statistiques Sanitaires Mondiales. 43 (3): 139–44. PMID 2238694. /wiki/PMID_(identifier) ↩

  86. "Pesticide Illness & Injury Surveillance". CDC.gov. NIOSH. Feb 7, 2017. Retrieved 2014-01-28. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/pesticides/ ↩

  87. Laborde A, Tomasina F, Bianchi F, Bruné M, Buka I, Comba P, et al. (2015). "Children's Health in Latin America: The Influence of Environmental Exposures". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (3): 201–209. Bibcode:2015EnvHP.123..201L. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408292. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 4348745. PMID 25499717. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4348745 ↩

  88. "Agriculture & Food Security". www.eac.int. Retrieved 2020-11-30. https://www.eac.int/agriculture#:~:text=The%20major%20food%20crops%20are,tobacco,%20coconut%20and%20cashew%20nuts. ↩

  89. Mekonnen Y, Ejigu D (Sep 2005). "Plasma cholinesterase level of Ethiopian farm workers exposed to chemical pesticide". Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England). 55 (6): 504–505. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqi088. ISSN 0962-7480. PMID 16140842. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foccmed%2Fkqi088 ↩

  90. Ohayo-Mitoko GJ, Kromhout H, Simwa JM, Boleij JS, Heederik D (2000). "Self reported symptoms and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity among Kenyan agricultural workers". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 57 (3): 195–200. doi:10.1136/oem.57.3.195. ISSN 1351-0711. PMC 1739922. PMID 10810102. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1739922 ↩

  91. Magauzi R, Mabaera B, Rusakaniko S, Chimusoro A, Ndlovu N, Tshimanga M, et al. (Jul 11, 2011). "Health effects of agrochemicals among farm workers in commercial farms of Kwekwe district, Zimbabwe". The Pan African Medical Journal. 9 (1): 26. doi:10.4314/pamj.v9i1.71201. ISSN 1937-8688. PMC 3215548. PMID 22145061. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3215548 ↩

  92. Mekonnen Y, Agonafir T (2004). "Lung function and respiratory symptoms of pesticide sprayers in state farms of Ethiopia". Ethiopian Medical Journal. 42 (4): 261–266. ISSN 0014-1755. PMID 16122117. /wiki/ISSN_(identifier) ↩

  93. He F (Sep 5, 1999). "Biological monitoring of exposure to pesticides: current issues". Toxicology Letters. 108 (2–3): 277–283. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(99)00099-5. PMID 10511272. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  94. He F (Sep 5, 1999). "Biological monitoring of exposure to pesticides: current issues". Toxicology Letters. 108 (2–3): 277–283. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(99)00099-5. PMID 10511272. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  95. Mekonnen Y, Ejigu D (Sep 2005). "Plasma cholinesterase level of Ethiopian farm workers exposed to chemical pesticide". Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England). 55 (6): 504–505. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqi088. ISSN 0962-7480. PMID 16140842. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foccmed%2Fkqi088 ↩

  96. Ohayo-Mitoko GJ, Kromhout H, Simwa JM, Boleij JS, Heederik D (2000). "Self reported symptoms and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity among Kenyan agricultural workers". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 57 (3): 195–200. doi:10.1136/oem.57.3.195. ISSN 1351-0711. PMC 1739922. PMID 10810102. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1739922 ↩

  97. Magauzi R, Mabaera B, Rusakaniko S, Chimusoro A, Ndlovu N, Tshimanga M, et al. (Jul 11, 2011). "Health effects of agrochemicals among farm workers in commercial farms of Kwekwe district, Zimbabwe". The Pan African Medical Journal. 9 (1): 26. doi:10.4314/pamj.v9i1.71201. ISSN 1937-8688. PMC 3215548. PMID 22145061. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3215548 ↩

  98. He F (Sep 5, 1999). "Biological monitoring of exposure to pesticides: current issues". Toxicology Letters. 108 (2–3): 277–283. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(99)00099-5. PMID 10511272. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  99. World Health Organization. Office of Occupational Health. (1996). Biological monitoring of chemical exposure in the workplace: guidelines. World Health Organization. hdl:10665/41856. ISBN 978-951-802-158-5. 978-951-802-158-5 ↩

  100. Ohayo-Mitoko GJ, Kromhout H, Simwa JM, Boleij JS, Heederik D (2000). "Self reported symptoms and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity among Kenyan agricultural workers". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 57 (3): 195–200. doi:10.1136/oem.57.3.195. ISSN 1351-0711. PMC 1739922. PMID 10810102. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1739922 ↩

  101. Jurewicz J, Hanke W (2008). "Prenatal and Childhood Exposure to Pesticides and Neurobehavioral Development: Review of Epidemiological Studies". International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. 21 (2): 121–32. doi:10.2478/v10001-008-0014-z (inactive Feb 17, 2025). ISSN 1896-494X. PMID 18614459.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025 (link) http://oldwww.imp.lodz.pl/home_en/publishing_office/journals_/_ijomeh/&articleId=20947&l=PL ↩

  102. Wesseling C, De Joode BV, Ruepert C, León C, Monge P, Hermosillo H, et al. (Oct 2001). "Paraquat in Developing Countries". International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. 7 (4): 275–286. doi:10.1179/oeh.2001.7.4.275. ISSN 1077-3525. PMID 11783857. http://www.maneyonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/oeh.2001.7.4.275 ↩

  103. Jurewicz J, Hanke W (2008). "Prenatal and Childhood Exposure to Pesticides and Neurobehavioral Development: Review of Epidemiological Studies". International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. 21 (2): 121–32. doi:10.2478/v10001-008-0014-z (inactive Feb 17, 2025). ISSN 1896-494X. PMID 18614459.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025 (link) http://oldwww.imp.lodz.pl/home_en/publishing_office/journals_/_ijomeh/&articleId=20947&l=PL ↩

  104. Goldmann L (May 2004). Childhood Pesticide Poisoning: Information for Advocacy and Action (PDF) (Report). WHO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-05-17. https://web.archive.org/web/20090517035747/https://www.who.int/ceh/publications/pestpoisoning.pdf ↩

  105. He F (Sep 5, 1999). "Biological monitoring of exposure to pesticides: current issues". Toxicology Letters. 108 (2–3): 277–283. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(99)00099-5. PMID 10511272. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  106. He F (Sep 5, 1999). "Biological monitoring of exposure to pesticides: current issues". Toxicology Letters. 108 (2–3): 277–283. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(99)00099-5. PMID 10511272. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  107. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  108. Tosi S, Costa C, Vesco U, Quaglia G, Guido G (2018). "A survey of honey bee-collected pollen reveals widespread contamination by agricultural pesticides". Science of the Total Environment. 615: 208–218. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.226. PMID 28968582. S2CID 19956612. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  109. "Soyalism | DW Documentary". YouTube (AV media). Brazil. Feb 21, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ksrc7eI3IMY&t=1459 ↩

  110. Liess M, Liebmann L, Vormeier P, Weisner O, Altenburger R, Borchardt D, et al. (Aug 1, 2021). "Pesticides are the dominant stressors for vulnerable insects in lowland streams". Water Research. 201: 117262. Bibcode:2021WatRe.20117262L. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2021.117262. ISSN 0043-1354. PMID 34118650. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0043135421004607 ↩

  111. Dicks LV, Breeze TD, Ngo HT, Senapathi D, An J, Aizen MA, et al. (Aug 16, 2021). "A global-scale expert assessment of drivers and risks associated with pollinator decline". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 5 (10): 1453–1461. Bibcode:2021NatEE...5.1453D. doi:10.1038/s41559-021-01534-9. PMID 34400826. S2CID 237148742. http://rid.unrn.edu.ar/handle/20.500.12049/7526 ↩

  112. Goulson D, Nicholls E, Botías C, Rotheray EL (Mar 27, 2015). "Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers". Science. 347 (6229): 1255957. doi:10.1126/science.1255957. PMID 25721506. S2CID 206558985. https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1255957 ↩

  113. Wells M (Mar 11, 2007). "Vanishing bees threaten U.S. crops". BBC News. London. Retrieved 2007-09-19. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6438373.stm ↩

  114. Palmer WE, Bromley PT, Brandenburg RL. "Wildlife & Pesticides – Peanuts". North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Archived from the original on 2008-02-17. Retrieved 2007-10-11. https://web.archive.org/web/20080217024025/http://ipm.ncsu.edu/wildlife/peanuts_wildlife.html ↩

  115. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  116. "Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)". Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. 2024. Retrieved 2024-10-06. https://www.pops.int/ ↩

  117. "Ridding The World of Pops: A Guide to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants" (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme. Apr 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-15. Retrieved 2017-02-05. https://web.archive.org/web/20170315065236/http://www.pops.int/documents/guidance/beg_guide.pdf ↩

  118. Castro P, Huber ME (2010). Marine Biology (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. ISBN 978-0-07-352416-0. OCLC 488863548. 978-0-07-352416-0 ↩

  119. Pesticide Usage in the United States: History, Benefits, Risks, and Trends; Bulletin 1121, November 2000, K.S. Delaplane, Cooperative Extension Service, The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-13. Retrieved 2012-11-10.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) https://web.archive.org/web/20100613142901/http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubs/PDF/B1121.pdf ↩

  120. Quinn AL (2007). The impacts of agricultural chemicals and temperature on the physiological stress response in fish (MSc Thesis). Lethbridge: University of Lethbridge. http://opus.uleth.ca/handle/10133/676 ↩

  121. "About Pesticide Registration". Environmental Protection Agency. Jan 25, 2023. Retrieved 2023-12-13. https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/about-pesticide-registration#registration ↩

  122. "Approval of active substances". European Commission. Retrieved 2023-12-13. https://food.ec.europa.eu/plants/pesticides/approval-active-substances_en ↩

  123. "National Biomonitoring Program". Center for disease control and prevention. Apr 7, 2017. Retrieved 2024-01-06. https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/DDT_BiomonitoringSummary.html ↩

  124. "Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) Factsheet". Center for disease control and prevention. Aug 16, 2021. Retrieved 2024-01-06. https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/DDT_FactSheet.html ↩

  125. Sims GK, Cupples AM (1999). "Factors controlling degradation of pesticides in soil". Pesticide Science. 55 (5): 598–601. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9063(199905)55:5<598::AID-PS962>3.0.CO;2-N. ISSN 1096-9063. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  126. Sims GK, Sommers LE (1986). "Biodegradation of pyridine derivatives in soil suspensions". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 5 (6): 503–509. doi:10.1897/1552-8618(1986)5[503:bopdis]2.0.co;2. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  127. Wolt JD, Smith JK, Sims JK, Duebelbeis DO (1996). "Products and kinetics of cloramsulam-methyl aerobic soil metabolism". J. Agric. Food Chem. 44 (1): 324–332. Bibcode:1996JAFC...44..324W. doi:10.1021/jf9503570. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  128. Tosi S, Costa C, Vesco U, Quaglia G, Guido G (2018). "A survey of honey bee-collected pollen reveals widespread contamination by agricultural pesticides". Science of the Total Environment. 615: 208–218. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.226. PMID 28968582. S2CID 19956612. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  129. Pimentel D (2005). "Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States" (PDF). Environment, Development and Sustainability. 7 (2): 229–252. Bibcode:2005EDSus...7..229P. doi:10.1007/s10668-005-7314-2. S2CID 35964365. http://www.beyondpesticides.org/documents/pimentel.pesticides.2005update.pdf ↩

  130. Pimentel D (2005). "Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States" (PDF). Environment, Development and Sustainability. 7 (2): 229–252. Bibcode:2005EDSus...7..229P. doi:10.1007/s10668-005-7314-2. S2CID 35964365. http://www.beyondpesticides.org/documents/pimentel.pesticides.2005update.pdf ↩

  131. Pimentel D (2005). "Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States" (PDF). Environment, Development and Sustainability. 7 (2): 229–252. Bibcode:2005EDSus...7..229P. doi:10.1007/s10668-005-7314-2. S2CID 35964365. http://www.beyondpesticides.org/documents/pimentel.pesticides.2005update.pdf ↩

  132. Dunlop ES, McLaughlin R, Adams JV, Jones M, Birceanu O, Christie MR, et al. (2018). "Rapid evolution meets invasive species control: the potential for pesticide resistance in sea lamprey". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 75 (1). National Research Council Canada: 152–168. Bibcode:2018CJFAS..75..152D. doi:10.1139/cjfas-2017-0015. hdl:1807/78674. ISSN 0706-652X. /wiki/Canadian_Journal_of_Fisheries_and_Aquatic_Sciences ↩

  133. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  134. McSorley R, Gallaher RN (Dec 1996). "Effect of yard waste compost on nematode densities and maize yield". Journal of Nematology. 28 (4S): 655–60. PMC 2619736. PMID 19277191. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2619736 ↩

  135. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  136. Shelton AM, Badenes-Perez FR (Dec 6, 2005). "Concepts and applications of trap cropping in pest management". Annual Review of Entomology. 51 (1): 285–308. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.150959. PMID 16332213. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  137. Holden MH, Ellner SP, Lee DH, Nyrop JP, Sanderson JP (Jun 1, 2012). "Designing an effective trap cropping strategy: the effects of attraction, retention and plant spatial distribution". Journal of Applied Ecology. 49 (3): 715–722. Bibcode:2012JApEc..49..715H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02137.x. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2664.2012.02137.x ↩

  138. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  139. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  140. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  141. "The Biological Control of Pests". Jul 25, 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-09-21. Retrieved 2007-09-17. https://web.archive.org/web/20070921015356/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Biocontrols.html ↩

  142. Summerlin LB, ed. (1977). "Chapter 17: Life Sciences". Skylab, Classroom in Space. Washington: MSFC. Retrieved 2007-09-17. https://history.nasa.gov/SP-401/ch17.htm ↩

  143. Miller GT (2004). "Ch. 9. Biodiversity". Sustaining the Earth (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson Learning, Inc. pp. 211–216. ISBN 978-0-495-55687-9. OCLC 52134759. 978-0-495-55687-9 ↩

  144. Papadopoulos L (Oct 21, 2022). "This new farming robot uses lasers to kill 200,000 weeds per hour". interestingengineering.com. Retrieved 2022-11-17. https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/farming-robot-lasers-200000-weeds-per-hour ↩

  145. Cook SM, Khan ZR, Pickett JA (2007). "The use of push-pull strategies in integrated pest management". Annual Review of Entomology. 52 (1): 375–400. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407. PMID 16968206. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  146. McSorley R, Gallaher RN (Dec 1996). "Effect of yard waste compost on nematode densities and maize yield". Journal of Nematology. 28 (4S): 655–60. PMC 2619736. PMID 19277191. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2619736 ↩

  147. Epstein E (1999). "Silicon". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 50 (1). Annual Reviews: 641–664. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.50.1.641. ISSN 1040-2519. PMID 15012222. /wiki/Annual_Review_of_Plant_Physiology_and_Plant_Molecular_Biology ↩

  148. Coombs A (Jan 1, 2013). "Fighting Microbes with Microbes". The Scientist. Retrieved 2013-04-18. http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/33703/title/Fighting-Microbes-with-Microbes/ ↩

  149. Borgio JF, Sahayaraj K, Susurluk IA, eds. (2011). Microbial Insecticides: Principles and Applications. New York: Nova Science Publishers. p. 492. ISBN 978-1-61942-770-9. OCLC 780442651. 978-1-61942-770-9 ↩

  150. Pal GK, Kumar B (2013). "Antifungal activity of some common weed extracts against wilt causing fungi, Fusarium oxysporum". Current Discovery. 2 (1): 62–67. ISSN 2320-4400 – via Academia. https://www.academia.edu/5848539 ↩

  151. "Plant Incorporated Protectants (PIPs) / Genetically Modified Plants". npic.orst.edu. US NPIC. Feb 9, 2017. Retrieved 2018-12-09. http://npic.orst.edu/reg/pip.html ↩

  152. "Types of Pesticides". US EPA. Archived from the original on 2013-03-28. Retrieved 2013-02-20. https://web.archive.org/web/20130328231904/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/types.htm ↩

  153. Dhole S, Lloyd AL, Gould F (Nov 2, 2020). "Gene Drive Dynamics in Natural Populations: The Importance of Density Dependence, Space, and Sex". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 51 (1). Annual Reviews: 505–531. arXiv:2005.01838. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-031120-101013. ISSN 1543-592X. PMC 8340601. PMID 34366722. S2CID 218502293. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8340601 ↩

  154. This article incorporates public domain material from Jasper Womach. Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition (PDF). Congressional Research Service. /wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States ↩

  155. Willson HR (1996). "Pesticide Regulations". In Radcliffe EB, Hutchison WD, Cancelado RE (eds.). Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook. St. Paul: University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 2017-07-13. https://ipmworld.umn.edu/wilson-regulations ↩

  156. "Laws of Malaysia. Act 149: Pesticides Act 1974" (PDF). pest-aside.com.my. Jun 1, 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-04. Retrieved 2018-12-10. http://pest-aside.com.my/Act_149-Pesticides_Act_1974_Malaysia_Kota_Kinabalu.pdf ↩

  157. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization (Nov 14, 2019). Global situation of pesticide management in agriculture and public health: Report of a 2018 WHO–FAO survey. Food & Agriculture Org. pp. 25–. ISBN 978-92-5-131969-7. 978-92-5-131969-7 ↩

  158. Willson HR (1996). "Pesticide Regulations". In Radcliffe EB, Hutchison WD, Cancelado RE (eds.). Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook. St. Paul: University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 2017-07-13. https://ipmworld.umn.edu/wilson-regulations ↩

  159. "Programmes: International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides". UN FAO. Archived from the original on 2008-12-02. Retrieved 2007-10-25. https://web.archive.org/web/20081202034101/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpp/pesticid/Code/PM_Code.htm ↩

  160. "International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20130404190746/http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/Code/Download/code.pdf ↩

  161. Reynolds JD (1997). "International Pesticide Trade: Is There any Hope for the Effective Regulation of Controlled Substances?". Journal of Land Use & Environmental Law. 13 (1): 69–105. JSTOR 42842699. Archived from the original on 2012-05-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20120527062748/http://www.law.fsu.edu/journals/landuse/vol131/reyn.html ↩

  162. "Pesticides and Public Health". Pesticides: Health and Safety. US EPA. Aug 20, 2015. Archived from the original on 2014-01-14. Retrieved 2018-12-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20140114104958/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/public.htm ↩

  163. "Data Requirements for Pesticide Registration". Pesticides: Regulating Pesticides. US EPA. Aug 20, 2015. Archived from the original on 2013-04-01. Retrieved 2018-12-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20130401081851/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/regulating/data_requirements.htm ↩

  164. Wayland S, Fenner-Crisp P (Apr 2020) [March 2016]. "Reducing Pesticide Risks: A Half Century of Progress" (PDF). EPA Alumni Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-10-22. https://web.archive.org/web/20161022222635/http://www.epaalumni.org/hcp/pesticides.pdf ↩

  165. "Pesticides and Public Health". Pesticides: Health and Safety. US EPA. Aug 20, 2015. Archived from the original on 2014-01-14. Retrieved 2018-12-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20140114104958/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/public.htm ↩

  166. Wayland S, Fenner-Crisp P (Apr 2020) [March 2016]. "Reducing Pesticide Risks: A Half Century of Progress" (PDF). EPA Alumni Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-10-22. https://web.archive.org/web/20161022222635/http://www.epaalumni.org/hcp/pesticides.pdf ↩

  167. Willson HR (1996). "Pesticide Regulations". In Radcliffe EB, Hutchison WD, Cancelado RE (eds.). Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook. St. Paul: University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 2017-07-13. https://ipmworld.umn.edu/wilson-regulations ↩

  168. "Protocol for Conducting Environmental Compliance Audits under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)" (PDF). epa.gov. US EPA. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-01. Retrieved 2018-12-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20140801031141/http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/policies/incentives/auditing/apcol-fifra.pdf ↩

  169. "Ch. 11. Restricted-Use Pesticides: Dealer and Applicator Records Inspections" (PDF). Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) Inspection Manual. Washington: US EPA. 2013. pp. 11–1–11–4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-21. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-01/documents/fiframanual.pdf ↩

  170. "Chemical Hazard Communication". United States Department of Labor; OSHA. 1998. https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3084.html ↩

  171. "Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA)". US EPA. Jul 24, 2013. Retrieved 2018-12-10. https://www.epa.gov/epcra ↩

  172. Toth SJ Jr (Mar 1996). "Federal Pesticide Laws and Regulations" (PDF). North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-03. Retrieved 2018-12-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20150403092424/http://ipm.ncsu.edu/safety/factsheets/laws.pdf ↩

  173. "Pesticide Registration Program". Pesticides: Topical & Chemical Fact Sheets. US EPA. 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-02-25. https://web.archive.org/web/20110212233949/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/registration.htm ↩

  174. "Assessing Health Risks from Pesticides". Pesticides: Topical & Chemical Fact Sheets. US EPA. Apr 5, 2007. Archived from the original on 2014-04-01. Retrieved 2018-12-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20140401031231/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/riskassess.htm ↩

  175. "Bill No. 2491, Draft 2" (PDF). Council of the County of Kaua'i. Oct 17, 2013. http://media.wix.com/ugd/5f73cf_56e4e700de9ae57e7b709740824bbed4.pdf ↩

  176. Goldman LR (2007). "Managing pesticide chronic health risks: U.S. policies". Journal of Agromedicine. 12 (1): 67–75. doi:10.1300/J096v12n02_08. PMID 18032337. S2CID 216149465. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  177. "MEPs approve pesticides legislation". europarl.europa.eu. EU Parliament. Jan 13, 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-02-01. Retrieved 2018-12-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20090201195914/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/expert/infopress_page/066-45937-012-01-03-911-20090112IPR45936-12-01-2009-2009-false/default_en.htm ↩

  178. Hemingway Jaynes C (Oct 25, 2023). McDermott C (ed.). "EU Votes to Cut Pesticide Use in Half by 2030". Ecowatch. Retrieved 2023-11-06. https://www.ecowatch.com/eu-pesticide-reduction-2030.html ↩

  179. McNaught AD, Wilkinson A, eds. (1987). "Pesticide Residue". Compendium of Chemical Terminology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. doi:10.1351/goldbook.P04520. ISBN 978-0-9678550-9-7. OCLC 901451465. XML on-line corrected version created by Nic M, Jirat J, Kosata B; updates compiled by Jenkins A. 978-0-9678550-9-7 ↩

  180. "Pesticide Residues in Food". US EPA. Dec 5, 2011. Archived from the original on 2013-11-04. Retrieved 2018-12-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20131104075151/http://cfpub.epa.gov/eroe/index.cfm?fuseaction=detail.viewInd&lv=list.listByAlpha&r=224028&subtop=312 ↩

  181. "About Pesticide Registration". EPA (environmental protection agency). Jan 4, 2024. Retrieved 2024-01-06. https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/about-pesticide-registration#registration ↩

  182. "Approval of pesticides and herbicides in the EU". European Commission. Retrieved 2024-01-06. https://food.ec.europa.eu/plants/pesticides/approval-active-substances_en ↩

  183. "National Biomonitoring Program". Center for disease control and prevention. Apr 7, 2017. Retrieved 2024-01-06. https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/DDT_BiomonitoringSummary.html ↩

  184. "Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) Factsheet". Center for disease control and prevention. Aug 16, 2021. Retrieved 2024-01-06. https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/DDT_FactSheet.html ↩

  185. "Pesticide Data Program". U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 2024-01-06. https://www.ams.usda.gov/datasets/pdp ↩