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Waterborne disease
Diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms transmitted in water

Waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms transmitted through water, often spreading via bathing, drinking, or contaminated food. These diseases pose significant challenges in developing countries, with symptoms like diarrhea and vomiting. Prevention relies on access to clean drinking water and proper sanitation. Major pathogens include protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and metazoan parasites such as nematodes, including the cause of guinea worm disease. Additionally, blood flukes from the Schistosomatidae family cause Schistosomiasis, affecting millions globally.

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Terminology

The term waterborne disease is reserved largely for infections that predominantly are transmitted through contact with or consumption of microbially polluted water. Many infections may be transmitted by microbes or parasites that accidentally, possibly as a result of exceptional circumstances, have entered the water. However, the fact that there might be an occasional infection need not mean that it is useful to categorize the resulting disease as "waterborne". Nor is it common practice to refer to diseases such as malaria as "waterborne" just because mosquitoes have aquatic phases in their life cycles, or because treating the water they inhabit happens to be an effective strategy in control of the mosquitoes that are the vectors.

A related term is "water-related disease" which is defined as "any significant or widespread adverse effects on human health, such as death, disability, illness or disorders, caused directly or indirectly by the condition, or changes in the quantity or quality of any water".8: 47  Water-related diseases are grouped according to their transmission mechanism: water borne, water hygiene, water based, water related.9: 47  The main transmission mode for waterborne diseases is ingestion of contaminated water.

Causes

Further information: WASH

Lack of clean water supply, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are major causes for the spread of waterborne diseases in a community. The fecal–oral route is a disease transmission pathway for waterborne diseases. Poverty also increases the risk of communities to be affected by waterborne diseases. For example, the economic level of a community impacts their ability to have access to clean water.10 Less developed countries might be more at risk for potential outbreaks of waterborne diseases but more developed regions also are at risk to waterborne disease outbreaks.11

Influence of climate change

This section is an excerpt from Climate change and infectious diseases.[edit]

Global climate change has increased the occurrence of some infectious diseases.12 Infectious diseases whose transmission is impacted by climate change include, for example, vector-borne diseases like dengue fever, malaria, tick-borne diseases, leishmaniasis, zika fever, chikungunya and Ebola. One mechanism contributing to increased disease transmission is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the insects (or disease vectors) that can carry the diseases.13 Scientists stated a clear observation in 2022: "The occurrence of climate-related food-borne and waterborne diseases has increased (very high confidence)."14: 11 

Infectious diseases that are sensitive to climate can be grouped into: vector-borne diseases (transmitted via mosquitos, ticks etc.), waterborne diseases (transmitted via viruses or bacteria through water), and food-borne diseases.(spread through pathogens via food)15: 1107  Climate change affects the distribution of these diseases due to the expanding geographic range and seasonality of these diseases and their vectors.16: 9  Like other ways climate change affects human health, climate change exacerbates existing inequalities and challenges in managing infectious disease.

Diseases by type of pathogen

Protozoa

Disease and transmission1718Microbial agentSources of agent in water supplyGeneral symptoms
Acanthamoeba keratitis (cleaning of contact lenses with contaminated water)Acanthamoeba spp. (A. castellanii and A. polyphaga)widely distributed free-living amoebae found in many types of aquatic environments, including surface water, tap water, swimming pools, and contact lens solutionsEye pain, eye redness, blurred vision, sensitivity to light, sensation of something in the eye, and excessive tearing
Amoebiasis (hand-to-mouth)Protozoan (Entamoeba histolytica) (Cyst-like appearance)Sewage, non-treated drinking water, flies in water supply, saliva transfer(if the other person has the disease)Abdominal discomfort, fatigue, weight loss, diarrhea, bloating, fever
Cryptosporidiosis (oral)Protozoan (Cryptosporidium parvum)Collects on water filters and membranes that cannot be disinfected, animal manure, seasonal runoff of water.Flu-like symptoms, watery diarrhea, loss of appetite, substantial loss of weight, bloating, increased gas, nausea
CyclosporiasisProtozoan parasite (Cyclospora cayetanensis)Sewage, non-treated drinking watercramps, nausea, vomiting, muscle aches, fever, and fatigue
Giardiasis (fecal-oral) (hand-to-mouth)Protozoan (Giardia lamblia) Most common intestinal parasiteUntreated water, poor disinfection, pipe breaks, leaks, groundwater contamination, campgrounds where humans and wildlife use same source of water. Beavers and muskrats create ponds that act as reservoirs for Giardia.Diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, bloating, and flatulence
MicrosporidiosisProtozoan phylum (Microsporidia), but closely related to fungiEncephalitozoon intestinalis has been detected in groundwater, the origin of drinking water19Diarrhea and wasting in immunocompromised individuals.
Naegleriasis (primary amebic meningoencephalitis [PAM]) (nasal)Protozoan (Naegleria fowleri) (Cyst-like appearance)Watersports, non-chlorinated waterHeadache, vomiting, confusion, loss of balance, light sensitivity, hallucinations, fatigue, weight loss, fever, and coma

Bacteria

Disease and transmission2021Microbial agentSources of agent in water supplyGeneral symptoms
BotulismClostridium botulinumBacteria can enter an open wound from contaminated water sources. Can enter the gastrointestinal tract through consumption of contaminated drinking water or (more commonly) foodDry mouth, blurred and/or double vision, difficulty swallowing, muscle weakness, difficulty breathing, slurred speech, vomiting and sometimes diarrhea. Death is usually caused by respiratory failure.
CampylobacteriosisMost commonly caused by Campylobacter jejuniDrinking water contaminated with fecesProduces dysentery-like symptoms along with a high fever. Usually lasts 2–10 days.
CholeraSpread by the bacterium Vibrio choleraeDrinking water contaminated with the bacteriumIn severe forms it is known to be one of the most rapidly fatal illnesses known. Symptoms include very watery diarrhea, nausea, cramps, nosebleed, rapid pulse, vomiting, and hypovolemic shock (in severe cases), at which point death can occur in 12–18 hours.
E. coli InfectionCertain strains of Escherichia coli (commonly E. coli)Water contaminated with the bacteriaMostly diarrhea. Can cause death in immunocompromised individuals, the very young, and the elderly due to dehydration from prolonged illness.
M. marinum infectionMycobacterium marinumNaturally occurs in water, most cases from exposure in swimming pools or more frequently aquariums; rare infection since it mostly infects immunocompromised individualsSymptoms include lesions typically located on the elbows, knees, and feet (from swimming pools) or lesions on the hands (aquariums). Lesions may be painless or painful.
DysenteryCaused by a number of species in the genera Shigella and Salmonella with the most common being Shigella dysenteriaeWater contaminated with the bacteriumFrequent passage of feces with blood and/or mucus and in some cases vomiting of blood.
Legionellosis (two distinct forms: Legionnaires' disease and Pontiac fever)Caused by bacteria belonging to genus Legionella (90% of cases caused by Legionella pneumophila)Legionella is a very common organism that reproduces to high numbers in warm water;22 but only causes severe disease when aerosolized.23Pontiac fever produces milder symptoms resembling acute influenza without pneumonia. Legionnaires' disease has severe symptoms such as fever, chills, pneumonia (with cough that sometimes produces sputum), ataxia, anorexia, muscle aches, malaise and occasionally diarrhea and vomiting
LeptospirosisCaused by bacterium of genus LeptospiraWater contaminated by the animal urine carrying the bacteriaBegins with flu-like symptoms then resolves. The second phase then occurs involving meningitis, liver damage (causes jaundice), and kidney failure
Otitis Externa (swimmer's ear)Caused by a number of bacterial and fungal species.Swimming in water contaminated by the responsible pathogensEar canal swells, causing pain and tenderness to the touch
SalmonellosisCaused by many bacteria of genus SalmonellaDrinking water contaminated with the bacteria. More common as a food borne illness.Symptoms include diarrhea, fever, vomiting, and abdominal cramps
Typhoid feverSalmonella typhiIngestion of water contaminated with feces of an infected personCharacterized by sustained fever up to 40 °C (104 °F), profuse sweating; diarrhea, muscle aches, fatigue, and constipation may occur. Symptoms progress to delirium, and the spleen and liver enlarge if untreated. In this case, it can last up to four weeks and cause death. Some people with typhoid fever develop a rash called "rose spots", small red spots on the abdomen and chest.
Vibrio IllnessVibrio vulnificus, Vibrio alginolyticus, and Vibrio parahaemolyticusCan enter wounds from contaminated water. Also acquired by drinking contaminated water or eating undercooked oysters.Symptoms include abdominal tenderness, agitation, bloody stools, chills, confusion, difficulty paying attention (attention deficit), delirium, fluctuating mood, hallucination, nosebleeds, severe fatigue, slow, sluggish, lethargic feeling, weakness.

Viruses

Disease and transmission2425262728Viral agentSources of agent in water supplyGeneral symptoms
Hepatitis AHepatitis A virus (HAV)Can manifest itself in water (and food)Symptoms are only acute (no chronic stage to the virus) and include Fatigue, fever, malaise, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, weight loss, itching, jaundice, and depression.
Hepatitis E (fecal-oral)Hepatitis E virus (HEV)Enters water through the feces of infected individualsSymptoms of acute hepatitis (liver disease), including fever, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, jaundice, dark urine, clay-colored stool, and joint pain
Acute gastrointestinal illness [AGI] (fecal-oral; spread by food, water, person-to-person, and fomites)NorovirusEnters water through the feces of infected individualsDiarrhea, vomiting, nausea, stomach pain
Poliomyelitis (Polio)PoliovirusEnters water through the feces of infected individuals90-95% of patients show no symptoms, 4-8% have minor symptoms (comparatively) with delirium, headache, fever, and occasional seizures, and spastic paralysis, 1% have symptoms of non-paralytic aseptic meningitis. The rest have serious symptoms resulting in paralysis or death
Polyomavirus infectionTwo of Polyomavirus: JC virus and BK virusVery widespread, can manifest itself in water, ~80% of the population has antibodies to PolyomavirusBK virus produces a mild respiratory infection and can infect the kidneys of immunosuppressed transplant patients. JC virus infects the respiratory system, kidneys or can cause progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in the brain (which is fatal).

Algae

Disease and transmission29Microbial agentSources of agent in water supplyGeneral symptoms
Desmodesmus infectiondesmodesmus armatusNaturally occurs in water. Can enter open wounds.Similar to fungal infection.

Parasitic worms

Disease and transmission3031AgentSources of agent in water supplyGeneral symptoms
Dracunculiasis [Guinea worm disease] (ingestion of contaminated water)Dracunculus medinensisFemale worm emerges from host skin and releases larvae in water.Slight fever, itchy rash, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, followed by formation of painful blister (typically on lower body parts)

Prevention

Further information: WASH § Health aspects

Reliable access to clean drinking water and sanitation is the main method to prevent waterborne diseases.32 The aim is to break the fecal–oral route of disease transmission.

Epidemiology

Further information: WASH § Health aspects

According to the World Health Organization, waterborne diseases account for an estimated 3.6% of the total DALY (disability- adjusted life year) global burden of disease, and cause about 1.5 million human deaths annually. The World Health Organization estimates that 58% of that burden, or 842,000 deaths per year, is attributable to a lack of safe drinking water supply, sanitation and hygiene (summarized as WASH).33

United States

The Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System (WBDOSS) is the principal database used to identify the causative agents, deficiencies, water systems, and sources associated with waterborne disease and outbreaks in the United States.34 Since 1971, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE), and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have maintained this surveillance system for collecting and reporting data on "waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with recreational water, drinking water, environmental, and undetermined exposures to water."3536 "Data from WBDOSS have supported EPA efforts to develop drinking water regulations and have provided guidance for CDC's recreational water activities."3738

WBDOSS relies on complete and accurate data from public health departments in individual states, territories, and other U.S. jurisdictions regarding waterborne disease and outbreak activity.39 In 2009, reporting to the WBDOSS transitioned from a paper form to the electronic National Outbreak Reporting System (NORS).40 Annual or biennial surveillance reports of the data collected by the WBDOSS have been published in CDC reports from 1971 to 1984; since 1985, surveillance data have been published in the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR).41

WBDOSS and the public health community work together to look into the causes of contaminated water leading to waterborne disease outbreaks and maintaining those outbreaks.42 They do so by having the public health community investigating the outbreaks and WBDOSS receiving the reports.43

Society and culture

Socioeconomic impact

Waterborne diseases can have a significant impact on the economy. People who are infected by a waterborne disease are usually confronted with related healthcare costs. This is especially the case in developing countries. On average, a family spends about 10% of the monthly households income per person infected.44

History

Further information: History of water supply and sanitation § Understanding of health aspects

Waterborne diseases were once wrongly explained by the miasma theory, the theory that bad air causes the spread of diseases.4546 However, people started to find a correlation between water quality and waterborne diseases, which led to different water purification methods, such as sand filtering and chlorinating their drinking water. Founders of microscopy, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke, used the newly invented microscope to observe for the first time small material particles that were suspended in the water, laying the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens and waterborne diseases.47

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Waterborne diseases.

References

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