The September 11 attacks in 2001 were four coordinated Islamist terrorist suicide hijackings by al-Qaeda that killed 2,977 people, making it the deadliest terrorist attack in history. Nineteen hijackers crashed planes into the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Virginia; a fourth crashed in Pennsylvania after passengers revolted. In response, the U.S. launched the war on terror, including the invasion of Afghanistan to oust the Taliban and target al-Qaeda. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed by 2002, with memorials such as the National September 11 Memorial & Museum honoring victims. These events reshaped global security and launched a multi-decade conflict.
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Further information: Fatwas of Osama bin Laden, Political views of Osama bin Laden, and 1993 World Trade Center bombing
In 1996, Osama bin Laden of the Islamist militant organization al-Qaeda issued his first fatwā, which declared war against the United States and demanded the expulsion of all American soldiers from the Arabian Peninsula.8 In a second 1998 fatwā, bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to Israel, as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War.9 Bin Laden maintained that Muslims are obliged to attack American targets until the aggressive policies of the U.S. against Muslims were reversed.1011
The Hamburg cell in Germany included Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9/11 attacks.12 Mohamed Atta; Marwan al-Shehhi; Ziad Jarrah; Ramzi bin al-Shibh; and Said Bahaji were all members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell.13 Bin Laden asserted that all Muslims must wage a defensive war against the United States and combat American aggression. He further argued that military strikes against American assets would send a message to the American people, attempting to force the U.S. to re-evaluate its support to Israel, and other aggressive policies.14 In a 1998 interview with American journalist John Miller, bin Laden stated:
We do not differentiate between those dressed in military uniforms and civilians; they are all targets in this fatwa. American history does not distinguish between civilians and military, not even women and children. They are the ones who used bombs against Nagasaki. Can these bombs distinguish between infants and military? America does not have a religion that will prevent it from destroying all people. So we tell the Americans as people and we tell the mothers of soldiers and American mothers in general that if they value their lives and the lives of their children, to find a nationalistic government that will look after their interests and not the interests of the Jews. The continuation of tyranny will bring the fight to America, as [the 1993 World Trade Center bomber] Ramzi [Yousef] yourself and others did. This is my message to the American people: to look for a serious government that looks out for their interests and does not attack others, their lands, or their honor. My word to American journalists is not to ask why we did that but to ask what their government has done that forced us to defend ourselves.
— Osama bin Laden, in his interview with John Miller, May 1998, 15
Osama bin Laden
Main article: Osama bin Laden
Further information: Militant career of Osama bin Laden
Bin Laden orchestrated the September 11 attacks. He initially denied involvement, but later recanted his denial.161718 Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by him on September 16, 2001: "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation".19 In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape in which bin Laden, talking to Khaled al-Harbi, admitted foreknowledge of the attacks.20 On December 27, a second video of bin Laden was released in which he, stopping short of admitting responsibility for the attacks, said:21
It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam. ... It is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people. ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim ummah [nation] has occurred. ... It is important to hit the economy (of the United States), which is the base of its military power...If the economy is hit they will become reoccupied.
— Osama bin Laden
Shortly before the 2004 U.S. presidential election, bin Laden used a taped statement to publicly acknowledge al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks.22 He admitted his direct link to the attacks and said they were carried out because:
The events that affected my soul in a direct way started in 1982 when America permitted the Israelis to invade Lebanon and the American Sixth Fleet helped them in that. This bombardment began and many were killed and injured and others were terrorised and displaced.
I couldn't forget those moving scenes, blood and severed limbs, women and children sprawled everywhere. Houses were destroyed along with their occupants, high rises demolished over their residents, rockets raining down on our home without mercy...As I looked at those demolished towers in Lebanon, it entered my mind that we should punish the oppressor in kind and that we should destroy towers in America so that they taste some of what we tasted and so that they be deterred from killing our women and children.
And that day, it was confirmed to me that oppression and the intentional killing of innocent women and children is a deliberate American policy. Destruction is freedom and democracy, while resistance is terrorism and intolerance.23
Bin Laden personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.2425 Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 showed bin Laden with one of the attacks' chief planners, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail al-Shehri, amidst making preparations for the attacks.26
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and other al-Qaeda members
Main article: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
Journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that in April 2002, al-Qaeda member Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement in the attacks, along with Ramzi bin al-Shibh.272829 The 2004 9/11 Commission Report determined that the animosity which Mohammed, the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks, felt towards the United States had stemmed from his "violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel".30 Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef, the lead bomber in that attack.3132 In late 1994, Mohammed and Yousef moved on to plan a new terrorist attack called the Bojinka plot planned for January 1995. Despite a failure and Yousef's capture by U.S. forces the following month, the Bojinka plot would influence the later 9/11 attacks.[42]
In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui, five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin Laden, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Abu Turab al-Urduni and Mohammed Atef.33
Motives
Main article: Motives for the September 11 attacks
Further information: Fatwas of Osama bin Laden
Osama bin Laden's declaration of a holy war against the United States, and a 1998 fatwā signed by bin Laden and others that called for the killing of Americans,3435 are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation.36 In November 2001, bin Laden defended the attacks as retaliatory strikes against American atrocities against Muslims across the world. He also maintained that the attacks were not directed against women and children, asserting that the targets of the strikes were symbols of America's "economic and military power".3738
In bin Laden's November 2002 Letter to the American People, he identified al-Qaeda's motives for the attacks:
- U.S. support of Israel3940
- Bin Laden's strategy to support and globally expand the Second Intifada41424344
- Attacks against Muslims by U.S.-led coalition in Somalia
- U.S. support of the government of Philippines against Muslims in the Moro conflict
- U.S. support for the Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon
- U.S. support of Russian atrocities against Muslims in Chechnya
- Pro-American governments in the Middle East (who "act as your agents") being against Muslim interests
- U.S. support of Indian oppression against Muslims in Kashmir
- The presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia45
- The sanctions against Iraq46
- Environmental destruction474849
After the attacks, bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri released additional recordings, some of which repeated the above reasons. Two relevant publications were bin Laden's 2002 Letter to the American People50 and a 2004 videotape by bin Laden.51
As an adherent of Islam, bin Laden believed that non-Muslims are forbidden from having a permanent presence in the Arabian Peninsula.52 In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia. One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions.53 In the 1998 fatwa, al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning the "protracted blockade" among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his messenger, and Muslims".54
In 2004, bin Laden claimed that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982 when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon War.5556 Some analysts, including political scientists John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt, also claimed that U.S. support of Israel was a motive for the attacks.5758 In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letters expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt" the U.S.5960
Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al-Qaeda. Some authors suggested the "humiliation" that resulted from the Islamic world falling behind the Western world—this discrepancy was rendered especially visible by globalization6162 and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al-Qaeda. Similarly, others have argued the 9/11 attacks were a strategic move to provoke America into a war that would incite a pan-Islamic revolution.6364
Planning
Main article: Planning of the September 11 attacks
Documents seized during the 2011 operation that killed bin Laden included notes handwritten by bin Laden in September 2002 with the heading "The Birth of the Idea of September 11". He describes how he was inspired by the crash of EgyptAir Flight 990 in October 1999, which was deliberately crashed by co-pilot Gameel Al-Batouti, killing over 200 passengers. "This is how the idea of 9/11 was conceived and developed in my head, and that is when we began the planning" bin Laden continued, adding that no one but Abu Hafs and Abu al-Khair knew about it at the time. The 9/11 Commission Report identified Khalid Sheikh Mohammed as the architect of 9/11, but he is not mentioned in bin Laden's notes.65
The attacks were conceived by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who first presented it to Osama bin Laden in 1996.66 At that time, bin Laden and al-Qaeda were in a period of transition, having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan.67 The 1998 African embassy bombings and bin Laden's February 1998 fatwā marked a turning point of al-Qaeda's terrorist operation,68 as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States.
In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden approved Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot.69 Atef provided operational support, including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.70 Bin Laden overruled Mohammed, rejecting potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles for lack of time.7172
Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support and was involved in selecting participants.73 He initially selected Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, both experienced jihadists who had fought in the Bosnian war. Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid-January 2000. In early 2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego, California. Both spoke little English, performed poorly in flying lessons, and eventually served as secondary "muscle" hijackers.7475
In late 1999, a group of men from Hamburg, Germany, arrived in Afghanistan. The group included Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh.76 Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated, could speak English, and had experience living in the West.77 New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al-Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot's license.78
Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8, 2000, joining Hazmi.79: 6–7 They soon left for Arizona, where Hanjour took refresher training.80: 7 Marwan al-Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000, while Atta arrived on June 3, 2000, and Jarrah arrived on June 27, 2000.81: 6 Bin al-Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States, but as a Yemeni, he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa.82: 4, 14 Bin al-Shibh stayed in Hamburg, providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed.83: 16 The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida at Huffman Aviation.84: 6
In the spring of 2001, the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States.85 In July 2001, Atta met with bin al-Shibh in Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain, where they coordinated details of the plot, including final target selection. Bin al-Shibh passed along bin Laden's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible.86 Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members or used fraudulent passports to gain entry.87
Prior intelligence
Main article: September 11 intelligence before the attacks
In late 1999, al-Qaeda associate Walid bin Attash ("Khallad") contacted Mihdhar and told him to meet in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Hazmi and Abu Bara al Yemeni would also be in attendance. The NSA intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting, Mihdhar, and the name "Nawaf" (Hazmi); while the agency feared "Something nefarious might be afoot", it took no further action.
The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence about Mihdhar and Hazmi being al-Qaeda members. A CIA team broke into Mihdhar's Dubai hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. While Alec Station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide, it did not share this information with the FBI. The Malaysian Special Branch observed the January 5, 2000, meeting of the two al-Qaeda members and informed the CIA that Mihdhar, Hazmi, and Khallad were flying to Bangkok, but the CIA never notified other agencies of this, nor did it ask the State Department to put Mihdhar on its watchlist. An FBI liaison asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting but was told: "This is not a matter for the FBI".88
By late June, senior counter-terrorism official Richard Clarke and CIA director George Tenet were "convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come", although the CIA believed the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel.89 In early July, Clarke put domestic agencies on "full alert", telling them, "Something spectacular is going to happen here, and it's going to happen soon". He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments, and the Defense Department to go to "Threat Condition Delta".9091 Clarke later wrote:
Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States. Somewhere in the FBI, there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States. [...] They had specific information about individual terrorists from which one could have deduced what was about to happen. None of that information got to me or the White House.92
On July 13, Tom Wilshire, a CIA agent assigned to the FBI's international terrorism division, emailed his superiors at the CIA's Counterterrorism Center (CTC) requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. The CIA never responded.93
The same day, Margarette Gillespie, an FBI analyst working in the CTC, was told to review material about the Malaysia meeting. She was not told of the participant's presence in the U.S. The CIA gave Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI counterterrorism but did not tell her their significance. The Intelink database informed her not to share intelligence material with criminal investigators. When shown the photos, the FBI refused more details on their significance, and they were not given Mihdhar's date of birth or passport number.94 In late August 2001, Gillespie told the INS, the State Department, the Customs Service, and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists, but the FBI was prohibited from using criminal agents in searching for the duo, hindering their efforts.95
Also in July, a Phoenix-based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters, Alec Station, and FBI agents in New York alerting them to "the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges". The agent, Kenneth Williams, suggested the need to interview flight school managers and identify all Arab students seeking flight training.96 In July, Jordan alerted the U.S. that al-Qaeda was planning an attack on the U.S.; "months later", Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack's codename was "The Big Wedding" and that it involved airplanes.97
On August 6, 2001, the CIA's Presidential Daily Brief, designated "For the President Only", was entitled Bin Ladin Determined To Strike in US. The memo noted that FBI information "indicates patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other types of attacks".98
In mid-August, one Minnesota flight school alerted the FBI about Zacarias Moussaoui, who had asked "suspicious questions". The FBI found that Moussaoui was a radical who had traveled to Pakistan, and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa. Their request to search his laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of probable cause.99
The failures in intelligence-sharing were attributed to 1995 Justice Department policies limiting intelligence-sharing, combined with CIA and NSA reluctance to reveal "sensitive sources and methods" such as tapped phones.100 Testifying before the 9/11 Commission in April 2004, then—Attorney General John Ashcroft recalled that the "single greatest structural cause for the September 11th problem was the wall that segregated or separated criminal investigators and intelligence agents".101 Clarke also wrote: "[T]here were ... failures to get information to the right place at the right time".102
Attacks
For a chronological guide, see Timeline for the day of the September 11 attacks.
Early on the morning of Tuesday, September 11, 2001, nineteen hijackers took control of four commercial airliners (two Boeing 757s and two Boeing 767s).103 Large planes with long flights were selected for hijacking because they would have more fuel.104
Key information about the four flights| Operator | Flight number | Aircraft type | Time of departure* | Time of crash* | Departed from | En route to | Crash site | Fatalities | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crew | Passengers† | Ground§ | Hijackers | Total‡ | ||||||||
| American Airlines | 11 | Boeing 767-223(ER)105 | 7:59 a.m. | 8:46 a.m. | Logan International Airport | Los Angeles International Airport | North Tower of the World Trade Center, floors 93 to 99 | 11 | 76 | 2,606 | 5 | 2,763 |
| United Airlines | 175 | Boeing 767–222106 | 8:14 a.m. | 9:03 a.m.107 | Logan International Airport | Los Angeles International Airport | South Tower of the World Trade Center, floors 77 to 85 | 9 | 51 | 5 | ||
| American Airlines | 77 | Boeing 757–223108 | 8:20 a.m. | 9:37 a.m. | Washington Dulles International Airport | Los Angeles International Airport | West wall of Pentagon | 6 | 53 | 125 | 5 | 189 |
| United Airlines | 93 | Boeing 757–222109 | 8:42 a.m. | 10:03 a.m. | Newark International Airport | San Francisco International Airport | Field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville | 7 | 33 | 0 | 4 | 44 |
| Totals | 33 | 213 | 2,731 | 19 | 2,996 | |||||||
* Eastern Daylight Time (UTC−04:00)† Excluding hijackers§ Including emergency workers‡ Including hijackers
Crashes
See also: Media documentation of the September 11 attacks
At 7:59 a.m., American Airlines Flight 11 took off from Logan International Airport in Boston.110 Fifteen minutes into the flight, five hijackers armed with boxcutters took over the plane, injuring at least three people (and possibly killing one)111112113 before forcing their way into the cockpit. The terrorists also displayed an apparent explosive and sprayed mace into the cabin, to frighten the hostages into submission and further hinder resistance.114 Back at Logan, United Airlines Flight 175 took off at 8:14 a.m.115 Hundreds of miles southwest at Dulles International Airport, American Airlines Flight 77 left the runway at 8:20 a.m.116 Flight 175's journey proceeded normally for 28 minutes until 8:42 am, when a group of five hijacked the plane, murdering both pilots and stabbing several crew members before assuming control of the aircraft. These hijackers also used bomb threats to instill fear into the passengers and crew,117 also spraying "tear gas, pepper spray or another irritant" in the cabin to force passengers and flight attendants to the rear of the cabin.118 Concurrently, United Airlines Flight 93 departed from Newark International Airport in New Jersey;119 originally scheduled to pull away from the gate at 8:00 a.m., the plane was running 42 minutes late.
At 8:46 a.m., Flight 11 was deliberately crashed into the north face of the World Trade Center's North Tower between the 93rd and 99th floors.120 The initial presumption by many was that it was an accident.121 At 8:51 a.m., American Airlines Flight 77 was also taken over by five hijackers who forcibly entered the cockpit 31 minutes after take-off.122 Although they were equipped with knives,123 there were no reports of anyone on board being stabbed, nor did the two people who made phone calls mention the use of mace or a bomb threat.
Flight 175 was flown into the South Tower's southern facade (2 WTC) between the 77th and 85th floors124 at 9:03 a.m.,125 demonstrating that the first crash was a deliberate act of terrorism.126127
Four men aboard Flight 93 struck suddenly, killing at least one passenger, after having waited 46 minutes—a holdup that proved disastrous for the terrorists when combined with the delayed takeoff.128 They stormed the cockpit and seized control of the plane at 9:28 a.m., turning the plane eastbound towards Washington, D.C.129 Much like their counterparts on the first two flights, the fourth team used bomb threats and filled the cabin with mace.130
Nine minutes after Flight 93's hijacking, Flight 77 crashed into the west side of the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m.131 Because of the two delays,132 the passengers and crew of Flight 93 had time to learn of the previous attacks through phone calls to the ground, and, as a result, an uprising was hastily organized to take control of the aircraft at 9:57 a.m.133 Within minutes, passengers had fought their way to the front of the cabin and began breaking down the cockpit door. Fearing their captives would gain the upper hand, the hijackers rolled the plane and pitched it into a nosedive,134135 crashing into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, southeast of Pittsburgh, at 10:03:11 a.m. The plane was about twenty minutes away from reaching D.C. at the time of the crash, and its target is believed to have been either the Capitol Building or the White House.136137
Some passengers and crew who called from the aircraft using the cabin air phone service and mobile phones provided details: several hijackers were aboard each plane; they used mace, tear gas, or pepper spray to overcome attendants; and some people aboard had been stabbed.138 Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots, flight attendants, and one or more passengers.139140 According to the 9/11 Commission's final report, the hijackers had recently purchased multi-function hand tools and assorted Leatherman-type utility knives with locking blades (which were not forbidden to passengers at the time), but these were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers.141142 A flight attendant on Flight 11, a passenger on Flight 175, and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs, but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake. The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites, and the 9/11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake.143 On at least two of the hijacked flights—American 11 and United 93—the terrorists claimed over the PA system that they were taking hostages and were returning to the airport to have a ransom demand met, a clear attempt to prevent passengers from fighting back. Both attempts failed, however, as both hijacker pilots in these instances (Mohamed Atta144 and Ziad Jarrah,145 respectively) mistakenly transmitted their messages to ATC instead of the people on the plane as intended, tipping off the flight controllers that the planes had been hijacked.
Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed due to fire-induced structural failure. Although the South Tower was struck around seventeen minutes after the North Tower, the plane's impact zone was far lower, at a much faster speed, and into a corner, with the unevenly-balanced additional structural weight causing it to collapse first at 9:59 a.m.,146: 80 147: 322 having burned for exactly 56 minutes148 in the fire caused by the crash of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel. The North Tower lasted another 29 minutes and 24 seconds before collapsing at 10:28: a.m.,149 one hour, forty-one minutes, and fifty-three seconds150 after being struck by American Airlines Flight 11. When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center building (7 WTC), damaging the building and starting fires. These fires burned for nearly seven hours, compromising the building's structural integrity, and 7 WTC collapsed at 5:21 p.m.151152 The west side of the Pentagon sustained significant damage.
At 9:42 a.m., the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) grounded all civilian aircraft within the continental U.S., and civilian aircraft already in flight were told to land immediately.153 All international civilian aircraft were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico, and were banned from landing on United States territory for three days.154 The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers. Among unconfirmed and often contradictory news reports aired throughout the day, one of the most prevalent claimed a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department's headquarters in Washington, D.C.155 Another jet (Delta Air Lines Flight 1989) was suspected of having been hijacked, but the aircraft responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland, Ohio.156
In an April 2002 interview, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, who are believed to have organized the attacks, said Flight 93's intended target was the United States Capitol, not the White House.157 During the planning stage of the attacks, Mohamed Atta (Flight 11's hijacker and pilot) thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from Hani Hanjour (who hijacked and piloted Flight 77).158 Mohammed said al-Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, but decided against it, fearing things could "get out of control".159 Final decisions on targets, according to Mohammed, were left in the hands of the pilots.160 If any pilot could not reach his intended target, he was to crash the plane.161
Casualties
Main articles: Casualties of the September 11 attacks and Lists of victims of the September 11 attacks
The attack on the World Trade Center's North Tower alone162 made 9/11 the deadliest act of terrorism in history.163 Taken together, the four crashes killed 2,996 people (including the hijackers) and injured thousands more.164 The death toll included 265 on the four planes (from which there were no survivors); 2,606 in the World Trade Center and the surrounding area; and 125 at the Pentagon.165166 Most who died were civilians, as well as 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists.167168 More than 90 countries lost citizens in the attacks.169
In New York City, more than 90% of those who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact. In the North Tower, between 1,344170 and 1,402 people were at, above or one floor below the point of impact and all died. Hundreds were killed instantly when the plane struck.171 The estimated 800 people172 who survived the impact were trapped and died in the fires or from smoke inhalation; fell or jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames; or were killed in the building's collapse. The destruction of all three staircases in the North Tower when Flight 11 hit made it impossible for anyone from the impact zone upward to escape. 107 people not trapped by the impact died.173 When Flight 11 struck between floors 93 and 99, the 92nd floor was rendered inescapable: the crash severed all elevator shafts while falling debris blocked the stairwells, ensuring the deaths of all 69 workers on the floor.
In the South Tower, around 600 people were on or above the 77th floor when Flight 175 struck; few survived. As with the North Tower, hundreds were killed at the moment of impact. Unlike those in the North Tower, the estimated 300 survivors174 of the crash were not technically trapped, but most were either unaware that a means of escape still existed or were unable to use it. One stairway, Stairwell A, narrowly avoided being destroyed, allowing 14 people located on the floors of impact (including Stanley Praimnath, a man who saw the plane coming at him) and four more from the floors above to escape. New York City 9-1-1 operators who received calls from people inside the tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded and as a result, told callers not to descend the tower on their own.175 In total, 630 people died in the South Tower, fewer than half the number killed in the North Tower.176 Of the 100–200 people witnessed jumping or falling to their deaths,177 only three recorded sightings were from the South Tower.178: 86 Casualties in the South Tower were significantly reduced because some occupants decided to leave the building immediately following the first crash, and because Eric Eisenberg, an executive at AON Insurance, decided to evacuate the floors occupied by AON (92 and 98–105) following the impact of Flight 11. The 17-minute gap allowed over 900 of the 1,100 AON employees present to evacuate from above the 77th floor before the South Tower was struck; Eisenberg was among the nearly 200 who did not escape. Similar pre-impact evacuations were carried out by Fiduciary Trust, CSC, and Euro Brokers, all of whom had offices on floors above the point of impact. The failure to order a full evacuation of the South Tower after the first plane crash into the North Tower was described by USA Today as "one of the day's great tragedies".179
As exemplified in the photograph The Falling Man, more than 200 people fell to their deaths from the burning towers, most of whom were forced to jump to escape the extreme heat, fire and smoke.180 Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in the hope of helicopter rescue, but the roof access doors were locked.181 No plan existed for helicopter rescues, and the combination of roof equipment, thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching.182
At the World Trade Center complex, 414 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires, while another law enforcement officer was killed when United 93 crashed. The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) lost 343 firefighters, including a chaplain and two paramedics.183184185 The New York City Police Department (NYPD) lost 23 officers.186 The Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) lost 37 officers.187 Eight emergency medical technicians and paramedics from private emergency medical services units were killed.188 Almost all of the emergency personnel who died at the scene were killed as a result of the towers collapsing, with the exception of one who was struck by a civilian falling from the South Tower.189
Cantor Fitzgerald L.P., an investment bank on the North Tower's 101st–105th floors, lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer.190 Marsh Inc., located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–100, lost 358 employees,191192 and Aon Corporation lost 175 employees.193 The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated that about 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks.194: xxxiii Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14,154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8:45 a.m.195 Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated.196
In Arlington County, Virginia, 125 Pentagon workers died when Flight 77 crashed into the building's western side. Seventy were civilians and 55 were military personnel, many of whom worked for the United States Army or the United States Navy. The Army lost 47 civilian employees, six civilian contractors, and 22 soldiers, while the Navy lost six civilian employees, three civilian contractors, and 33 sailors. Seven Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) civilian employees and one Office of the Secretary of Defense contractor died.197198199 Timothy Maude, a Lieutenant General and Army Deputy Chief of Staff, was the highest-ranking military official killed at the Pentagon.200
Weeks after the attack, the death toll was estimated to be over 6,000, more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed.201 The city was only able to identify remains for about 1,600 of the World Trade Center victims. The medical examiner's office collected "about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead".202 Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged Deutsche Bank Building.203
In 2010, a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the Fresh Kills Landfill, where 72 more human remains were recovered, bringing the total found to 1,845. As of 2011, DNA profiling was ongoing in an attempt to identify additional victims.204205206 In 2014, three coffin-size cases carrying 7,930 unidentified remains were transferred to a medical examiner's repository located at the same site as the National September 11 Memorial & Museum.207 Victims' families are permitted to visit a private "reflection room" which is closed to the public. The choice to place the remains in an underground area attached to a museum has been controversial; families of some victims have attempted to have the remains instead interred in a separate, above-ground monument.208
In August 2017, the 1,641st victim was identified as a result of newly available DNA technology,209 and a 1,642nd during July 2018.210 Three more victims were identified in October 2019,211 two in September 2021212 and an additional two in September 2023.213 As of 2025, 1,103 victims remain unidentified, amounting to 40% of the deaths in the World Trade Center attacks.214 On September 25, 2023, the FDNY reported that the department had now lost the same number of members to 9/11-related illnesses as it did on the day of the attacks.215216
Damage
Further information: Collapse of the World Trade Center and List of buildings damaged or destroyed in the September 11 attacks
The Twin Towers, Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC), 7 WTC, and St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church were destroyed.217 The U.S. Customs House (6 World Trade Center), 4 World Trade Center, 5 World Trade Center, and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged. All surrounding streets were in ruins.218 The last fires at the World Trade Center site were extinguished on December 20.219
The Deutsche Bank Building was damaged and was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions; it was deconstructed starting in 2007.220221222223 Buildings of the World Financial Center were damaged.224 The Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall was condemned due to extensive damage, and then reopened in 2012.225
Other neighboring buildings (including 90 West Street and the Verizon Building) suffered major damage but have been restored.226 World Financial Center buildings, One Liberty Plaza, the Millenium Hilton, and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have been restored.227 Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed, with only WCBS-TV maintaining a backup transmitter on the Empire State Building, but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts.228229
The PATH train system's World Trade Center station was located under the complex and was demolished when the towers collapsed. The tunnels leading to Exchange Place station in Jersey City were flooded with water.230 The station was rebuilt as the $4 billion World Trade Center Transportation Hub, which reopened in March 2015.231232 The Cortlandt Street station on the New York City Subway's IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line was also in close proximity to the World Trade Center complex, and the entire station, along with the surrounding track, was reduced to rubble.233 The station was rebuilt and reopened to the public on September 8, 2018.234
The Pentagon was extensively damaged, causing one section of the building to collapse.235 As the plane approached the Pentagon, its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building.236237 The plane hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact;238 debris from the tail section penetrated the furthest into the building, breaking through 310 feet (94 m) of the three outermost of the building's five rings.239240
Rescue efforts
Main article: Rescue and recovery effort after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center
See also: List of emergency and first responder agencies that responded to the September 11 attacks
The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) deployed more than 200 units (approximately half of the department) to the World Trade Center.241 Their efforts were supplemented by off-duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians.242243244 The New York City Police Department (NYPD) sent its Emergency Service Units and other police personnel and deployed its aviation unit,245 which determined that helicopter rescues from the towers were not feasible.246 Numerous police officers of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) also participated in rescue efforts.247 Once on the scene, the FDNY, the NYPD, and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians.248249
As conditions deteriorated, the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders, who issued orders for personnel to evacuate the towers; most NYPD officers were able to evacuate before the buildings collapsed.250251 With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies, warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders.252
After the first tower collapsed, FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings. Due to malfunctioning radio repeater systems, many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders. 9-1-1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene.253
Reactions
Main article: Reactions to the September 11 attacks
See also: Timeline for September following the September 11 attacks
The 9/11 attacks resulted in immediate responses, including domestic reactions; closings and cancellations; hate crimes; international responses; and military responses. Shortly after the attacks, the September 11th Victim Compensation Fund was created by an Act of Congress.254255 The purpose of the fund was to compensate the victims of the attacks and their families with their agreement not to file lawsuits against the airlines involved.256 Legislation authorizes the fund to disburse a maximum of $7.375 billion, including operational and administrative costs, of U.S. government funds.257 The fund was set to expire by 2020 but was in 2019 prolonged to allow claims to be filed until October 2090.258259
Immediate response
Further information: U.S. military response during the September 11 attacks
See also: Communication during the September 11 attacks
At 8:32 a.m., FAA officials were notified Flight 11 had been hijacked and they, in turn, notified the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). NORAD scrambled two F-15s from Otis Air National Guard Base in Massachusetts; they were airborne by 8:53 a.m. Because of slow and confused communication from FAA officials, NORAD had nine minutes' notice, and no notice about any of the other flights before they crashed.
After both of the Twin Towers had been hit, more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9:30 a.m.260 At 10:20 am, Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked. These instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action.261262263 Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition, knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets, the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes, possibly ejecting at the last moment.264
For the first time in U.S. history, the emergency preparedness plan Security Control of Air Traffic and Air Navigation Aids (SCATANA) was invoked,265 stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world.266 Ben Sliney, in his first day as the National Operations Manager of the FAA,267 ordered that American airspace be closed to all international flights, causing about 500 flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries. Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched Operation Yellow Ribbon to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers.268
The 9/11 attacks had immediate effects on the American people.269 Police and rescue workers from around the country traveled to New York City to help recover bodies from the remnants of the Twin Towers.270 Over 3,000 children lost a parent in the attacks.271 Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9/11.272273
Domestic reactions
Further information: U.S. government response to the September 11 attacks
Following the attacks, Bush's approval rating increased to 90%.274 On September 20, he addressed the nation and a joint session of Congress regarding the events, the rescue and recovery efforts, and his intended response to the attacks. New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani's highly visible role resulted in praise in New York and nationally.275
Many relief funds were immediately set up to provide financial assistance to the survivors of the attacks and the victims' families. By the deadline for victims' compensation on September 11, 2003, 2,833 applications had been received from the families of those killed.276
Contingency plans for the continuity of government and the evacuation of leaders were implemented soon after the attacks.277 Congress was not told that the United States had been under a continuity of government status until February 2002.278
In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history, the United States enacted the Homeland Security Act of 2002, creating the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Congress also passed the USA PATRIOT Act, saying it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes.279 Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act, saying it allows law enforcement to invade citizens' privacy and that it eliminates judicial oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence.280281282
To effectively combat future acts of terrorism, the National Security Agency (NSA) was given broad powers. The NSA commenced warrantless surveillance of telecommunications, which was sometimes criticized as permitting the agency "to eavesdrop on telephone and e-mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant".283 In response to requests by intelligence agencies, the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court permitted an expansion of powers by the U.S. government in seeking, obtaining, and sharing information on U.S. citizens as well as non-Americans around the world.284
Hate crimes
See also: Persecution of Muslims
Six days after the attacks, President Bush made a public appearance at Washington, D.C.'s largest Islamic Center where he acknowledged the "incredibly valuable contribution" of American Muslims and called for them "to be treated with respect".285 Numerous incidents of harassment and hate crimes against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks.286287288
Sikhs were also targeted due to their use of turbans, which are stereotypically associated with Muslims. There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the firebombing of a Hindu temple), and assaults on individuals, including one murder: Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim, who was fatally shot on September 15, 2001, in Mesa, Arizona.289 Two dozen members of Osama bin Laden's family were urgently evacuated out of the country on a private charter plane under FBI supervision three days after the attacks.290
According to an academic study, people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time. The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims, Arabs, and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin.291 A report by the South Asian American advocacy group South Asian Americans Leading Together documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17, 2001. Crimes such as vandalism, arson, assault, shootings, harassment, and threats in numerous places were documented.292293 Women wearing hijab were also targeted.294
Discrimination and racial profiling
Further information: Detentions following the September 11 attacks, Islamophobia in the United States, and Flying while Muslim
See also: Airport racial profiling in the United States
A poll of Arab-Americans in May 2002 found that 20% had personally experienced discrimination since September 11. A July 2002 poll of Muslim Americans found that 48% believed their lives had changed for the worse since September 11, and 57% had experienced an act of bias or discrimination.295 Following the September 11 attacks, many Pakistani Americans identified themselves as Indians to avoid potential discrimination and obtain jobs.296
By May 2002, there were 488 complaints of employment discrimination reported to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). 301 of those were complaints from people fired from their jobs. Similarly, by June 2002, the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) had investigated 111 September 11th-related complaints from airline passengers purporting that their religious or ethnic appearance caused them to be singled out at security screenings, and an additional 31 complaints from people who alleged they were blocked from boarding airplanes on the same grounds.297
Muslim American response
See also: Muslim attitudes towards terrorism and Peace in Islamic philosophy
Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks and called "upon Muslim Americans to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families".298 These organizations included the Islamic Society of North America, American Muslim Alliance, American Muslim Council, Council on American-Islamic Relations, Islamic Circle of North America, and the Shari'a Scholars Association of North America. Along with monetary donations, many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance, food, and shelter for victims.299300301
Interfaith efforts
Curiosity about Islam increased after the attacks. As a result, many mosques and Islamic centers began holding open houses and participating in outreach efforts to educate non-Muslims about the faith. In the first 10 years after the attacks, interfaith community service increased from 8 to 20 percent and the percentage of U.S. congregations involved in interfaith worship doubled from 7 to 14 percent.302
International reactions
The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide. Nations offered pro-American support and solidarity.303 Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, as well as Libya and Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity".304 The government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks, but privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause.305306
Although Palestinian Authority (PA) president Yasser Arafat also condemned the attacks, there were reports of celebrations of disputed size in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem.307308 Palestinian leaders discredited news broadcasters that justified the attacks or showed celebrations,309 and the Authority claimed such celebrations do not represent the Palestinians' sentiment.310311 Footage by CNN and other news outlets were suggested by a report originating at a Brazilian university to be from 1991; this was later proven to be a false accusation.312313 As in the United States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non-Muslims.314
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368 condemned the attacks and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat terrorism in accordance with their Charter.315 Numerous countries introduced anti-terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al-Qaeda ties.316317 Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists.318319
British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood "shoulder to shoulder" with the United States.320 In a speech to Congress nine days after the attacks, which Blair attended as a guest, President Bush declared "America has no truer friend than Great Britain".321 Subsequently, Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action; he held 54 meetings with world leaders.322
The U.S. set up the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to hold inmates they defined as "illegal enemy combatants". The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by the European Union and human rights organizations.323324325
On September 25, 2001, Iran's president Mohammad Khatami, meeting British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, said: "Iran fully understands the feelings of the Americans about the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on September 11". He said although the American administrations had been at best indifferent about terrorist operations in Iran, the Iranians felt differently and had expressed their sympathetic feelings with bereaved Americans in the tragic incidents in the two cities. He also stated that "Nations should not be punished in place of terrorists".326
According to Radio Farda's website, when the news of the attacks was released, some Iranian citizens gathered in front of the Embassy of Switzerland in Tehran, which serves as the protecting power of the United States in Iran, to express their sympathy, and some of them lit candles as a symbol of mourning. Radio Farda's website also states that in 2011, on the anniversary of the attacks, the United States Department of State published a post on its blog, in which the Department thanked the Iranian people for their sympathy and stated that it would never forget Iranian people's kindness.327 After the attacks, both the President328329 and the Supreme Leader of Iran condemned the attacks. The BBC and Time magazine published reports on holding candlelit vigils for the victims by Iranian citizens on their websites.330331 According to Politico Magazine, following the attacks, Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, "suspended the usual 'Death to America' chants at Friday prayers" temporarily.332
Military operations
Further information: War on terror and U.S. invasion of Afghanistan
At 2:40 pm on September 11, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was issuing orders to his aides to look for evidence of Iraqi involvement. According to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone, Rumsfeld asked for, "Best info fast. Judge whether they are good enough to hit S.H. at the same time. Not only OBL".333
In a meeting at Camp David on September 15 the Bush administration rejected the idea of attacking Iraq in response to the September 11 attacks.334 Nonetheless, they later invaded the country with allies, citing "Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism".335 At the time, as many as seven in ten Americans believed the Iraqi president played a role in the 9/11 attacks.336 Three years later, Bush conceded that he had not.337
The NATO council declared that the terrorist attacks on the United States were an attack on all NATO nations that satisfied Article 5 of the NATO charter. This marked the first invocation of Article 5, which had been written during the Cold War with an attack by the Soviet Union in mind.338 Australian Prime Minister John Howard, who was in Washington, D.C., during the attacks, invoked Article IV of the ANZUS treaty.339 The Bush administration announced a war on terror, with the stated goals of bringing bin Laden and al-Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks.340 These goals would be accomplished by imposing economic and military sanctions against states harboring terrorists, and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing.341
On September 14, 2001, the U.S. Congress passed the Authorization for the use of Military Force Against Terrorists, which grants the President the authority to use all "necessary and appropriate force" against those whom he determined "planned, authorized, committed or aided" the September 11 attacks or who harbored said persons or groups. It is still in effect.342
On October 7, 2001, the War in Afghanistan began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting Taliban and al-Qaeda camps, then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the Special Forces. This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban's rule of Afghanistan with the Fall of Kandahar on December 7, by U.S.-led coalition forces.343
Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, who went into hiding in the White Mountains, was targeted by U.S. coalition forces in the Battle of Tora Bora,344 but he escaped across the Pakistani border and remained out of sight for almost ten years.345 In an interview with Tayseer Allouni on October 21, 2001, bin Laden stated:
The events proved the extent of terrorism that America exercises in the world. Bush stated that the world has to be divided in two: Bush and his supporters, and any country that doesn't get into the global crusade is with the terrorists. What terrorism is clearer than this? Many governments were forced to support this "new terrorism"... America wouldn't live in security until we live it truly in Palestine. This showed the reality of America, which puts Israel's interest above its own people's interest. America won't get out of this crisis until it gets out of the Arabian Peninsula, and until it stops its support of Israel.346
Aftermath
Main article: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks
See also: Post-9/11
Health issues
Main article: Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks
Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2,500 contaminants and known carcinogens were spread across Lower Manhattan when the towers collapsed.347348 Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to fatal or debilitating illnesses among people who were at Ground Zero.349350 The Bush administration ordered the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security, but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.351
Health effects extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown.352 Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial.353 An estimated 18,000 people have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust.354 There is also scientific speculation that exposure to toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development.355 A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung function.356
Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of related illnesses were still in the court system. In 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of suits against the city.357 Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the attacks' aftermath, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe.358 Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area.359
The James L. Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act (2010) allocated $4.2 billion to create the World Trade Center Health Program, which provides testing and treatment for people with long-term health problems related to the 9/11 attacks.360361 The WTC Health Program replaced preexisting 9/11-related health programs such as the Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program and the WTC Environmental Health Center program.362
In 2020, the NYPD confirmed that 247 NYPD police officers had died due to 9/11-related illnesses. In September 2022, the FDNY confirmed that 299 firefighters had died due to 9/11-related illnesses. Both agencies believe that the death toll will rise dramatically in the coming years. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department (PAPD), the law enforcement agency with jurisdiction over the World Trade Center, confirmed that four of its police officers have died of 9/11-related illnesses. The chief of the PAPD at the time, Joseph Morris, made sure that industrial-grade respirators were provided to all PAPD police officers within 48 hours and decided that the same 30 to 40 police officers would be stationed at the World Trade Center pile, drastically lowering the number of total PAPD personnel who would be exposed to the air. The FDNY and NYPD had rotated hundreds, if not thousands, of different personnel from all over New York City to the pile without adequate respirators and breathing equipment that could have prevented future diseases.363364365366
Economic
Main article: Economic effects of the September 11 attacks
The attacks had a significant economic impact on the U.S. and world markets.367 The stock exchanges did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17. Reopening, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) fell 684 points, or 7.1%, to 8921, a record-setting one-day point decline.368 By the end of the week, the DJIA had fallen 1,369.7 points (14.3%), at the time its largest one-week point drop in history. In 2001 dollars, U.S. stocks lost $1.4 trillion in valuation for the week.369
In New York City, about 430,000 job months and $2.8 billion in wages were lost in the first three months after the attacks. The economic effects were mainly on the economy's export sectors.370371372 The city's GDP was estimated to have declined by $27.3 billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002. The U.S. government provided $11.2 billion in immediate assistance to the Government of New York City in September 2001, and $10.5 billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs.373
Also hurt were small businesses in Lower Manhattan near the World Trade Center (18,000 of which were destroyed or displaced), resulting in lost jobs and wages. Assistance was provided by Small Business Administration loans; federal government Community Development Block Grants; and Economic Injury Disaster Loans.374 Some 31,900,000 square feet (2,960,000 m2) of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed.375 Many wondered whether these jobs would return, and if the damaged tax base would recover.376 Studies of 9/11's economic effects show the Manhattan office real-estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared, because of the financial services industry's need for face-to-face interaction.377378
North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening, leading to a nearly 20% cutback in air travel capacity, and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling U.S. airline industry.379
The September 11 attacks also led to the U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq,380 as well as additional homeland security spending, totaling at least $5 trillion.381
Effects in Afghanistan
Further information: War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), Aftermath of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), and Killing of Ayman al-Zawahiri
Most of the Afghan population was already going hungry at the time of the attacks.382 In the aftermath of the attacks, tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan due to the possibility of military retaliation by the U.S. Pakistan, already home to many Afghan refugees from previous conflicts, closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17, 2001.383 Thousands of Afghans also fled to the frontier with Tajikistan but were denied entry.384 The Taliban leaders in Afghanistan pleaded against military action, saying "We appeal to the United States not to put Afghanistan into more misery because our people have suffered so much", referring to two decades of conflict and the humanitarian crisis attached to it.385
All United Nations expatriates had left Afghanistan after the attacks and no national or international aid workers were at their post. Workers were instead preparing in bordering countries like Pakistan, China and Uzbekistan to prevent a potential "humanitarian catastrophe", amid a critically low food stock for the Afghan population.386 The World Food Programme stopped importing wheat to Afghanistan on September 12 due to security risks.387
Approximately one month after the attacks, the United States led a broad coalition of international forces to overthrow the Taliban regime from Afghanistan for their harboring of al-Qaeda.388 Though Pakistani authorities were initially reluctant to align themselves with the U.S. against the Taliban, they permitted the coalition access to their military bases, and arrested and handed over to the U.S. over 600 suspected al-Qaeda members.389390
In 2011, the U.S. and NATO under President Obama initiated a drawdown of troops in Afghanistan finalized in 2016. During the presidencies of Donald Trump and Joe Biden in 2020 and 2021, the United States alongside its NATO allies withdrew all troops from Afghanistan completing the withdrawal of all regular U.S. troops on August 30, 2021.391392393 The withdrawal marked the end of the 2001–2021 War in Afghanistan. Biden said that after nearly 20 years of war, it was clear that the U.S. military could not transform Afghanistan into a modern democracy.394
Cultural influence
Main article: Cultural influence of the September 11 attacks
Further information: List of cultural references to the September 11 attacks, Entertainment affected by the September 11 attacks, and Osama bin Laden in popular culture
See also: Osama bin Laden (elephant)
Immediate responses to 9/11 included greater focus on home life and time spent with family, higher church attendance, and increased expressions of patriotism such as the flying of American flags.395 The radio industry responded by removing certain songs from playlists, and the attacks have subsequently been used as background, narrative, or thematic elements in film, music, literature, and humour. Already-running television shows as well as programs developed after 9/11 have reflected post-9/11 cultural concerns.396
9/11 conspiracy theories have become a social phenomenon, despite a lack of support from expert scientists, engineers, and historians.397 9/11 has also had a major impact on the religious faith of many individuals; for some it strengthened, to find consolation to cope with the loss of loved ones and overcome their grief; others started to question their faith or lose it entirely because they could not reconcile it with their view of religion.398399
The culture of America, after the attacks, is noted for heightened security and an increased demand thereof, as well as paranoia and anxiety regarding future terrorist attacks against most of the nation. Psychologists have also confirmed that there has been an increased amount of national anxiety in commercial air travel.400 Anti-Muslim hate crimes rose nearly ten-fold in 2001 and have subsequently remained "roughly five times higher than the pre-9/11 rate".401
Government policies towards terrorism
Further information: War on terror, Anti-terrorism legislation, Airport security repercussions due to the September 11 attacks, and Legal issues related to the September 11 attacks
See also: Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture
As a result of the attacks, many governments across the world passed legislation to combat terrorism.402 In Germany, where several of the 9/11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country's liberal asylum policies, two major anti-terrorism packages were enacted. The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany. The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement.403 Canada passed the Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act, their first anti-terrorism law.404 The United Kingdom passed the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005.405406 New Zealand enacted the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002.407
In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security was created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002 to coordinate domestic anti-terrorism efforts. The USA Patriot Act gave the federal government greater powers, including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge; to monitor terror suspects' telephone communications, e-mail, and Internet use; and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists from gaining control of planes and assigned sky marshals to flights.
Further, the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for airport security. The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy.408 After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about the collection of American call records by the NSA and the PRISM program, Representative Jim Sensenbrenner (of Wisconsin), who introduced the Patriot Act in 2001, said that the NSA overstepped its bounds.409410
Criticism of the war on terror has focused on its morality, efficiency, and cost. According to a 2021 report by the Costs of War Project, the several post-9/11 wars participated in by the United States in its war on terror have caused the displacement, conservatively calculated, of 38 million people in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Yemen, Somalia, and the Philippines.411412413 They estimated these wars caused the deaths of 897,000 to 929,000 people directly and cost $8 trillion.414 In a 2023 report, the Costs of War Project estimated that there have been between 3.6 and 3.7 million indirect deaths in the post-9/11 war zones, with the total death toll being 4.5 to 4.6 million. The report defined post-9/11 war zones as conflicts that included significant United States counter-terrorism operations since 9/11, which in addition to the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan, also includes the civil wars in Syria, Yemen, Libya and Somalia.415 The report derived its estimate of indirect deaths using a calculation from the Geneva Declaration of Secretariat which estimates that for every person directly killed by war, four more die from the indirect consequences of war.416 The U.S. Constitution and U.S. law prohibits the use of torture, yet such human rights violations occurred during the war on terror under the euphemism "enhanced interrogation".417418 In 2005, The Washington Post and Human Rights Watch (HRW) published revelations concerning CIA flights and "black sites", covert prisons operated by the CIA.419420 The term "torture by proxy" is used by some critics to describe situations in which the CIA and other U.S. agencies have transferred suspected terrorists to countries known to employ torture.421422
Legal proceedings
Main articles: Trials related to the September 11 attacks and United States v. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
At 11:35 p.m., President Obama appeared on major television networks:423 As all 19 hijackers died in the attacks, they were never prosecuted. Osama bin Laden was never formally indicted; he was ultimately killed by U.S. special forces on May 2, 2011, in his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, after a 10-year manhunt.424425 The main trial of the attacks against Mohammed and his co-conspirators Walid bin Attash, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Ammar al-Baluchi, and Mustafa Ahmad al Hawsawi remains unresolved. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was arrested on March 1, 2003, in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA. He was then held at multiple CIA secret prisons and Guantanamo Bay, where he was interrogated and tortured with methods including waterboarding.426427 In 2003, Mustafa al-Hawsawi and Abd al-Aziz Ali were arrested and transferred to U.S. custody. Both would later be accused of providing money and travel assistance to the hijackers.428 During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007, Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks, stating he "was responsible for the 9/11 operation from A to Z" and that his statement was not made under duress.429430 In January 2023, the U.S. government opened up about a potential plea deal,431 with Biden giving up on the effort in September that year.432
To date, only peripheral persons have thus been convicted for charges in connection with the attacks. These include:
- Zacarias Moussaoui who was indicted in December 2001 and sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole in May 2006 by a U.S. federal jury
- Mounir El Motassadeq who was first convicted in February 2003 by a Federal Court of Justice in Germany and was deported to Morocco in October 2018 after serving his sentence433
- Abu Dahdah who was arrested in November 2001, sentenced by a Spanish High Court and released from prison in May 2013.434
In July 2024, The New York Times reported that Mohammed, Walid bin Attash and Mustafa al-Hawsawi had agreed to plead guilty to conspiracy in exchange for life sentences, avoiding trial and execution. However, U.S. Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin revoked a plea agreement with Mohammed days later.435
Investigations
FBI
Further information: Hijackers in the September 11 attacks
Immediately after the attacks, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) started PENTTBOM, the largest criminal inquiry in U.S. history. At its height, more than half of the FBI's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half-million leads.436 The FBI concluded that there was "clear and irrefutable" evidence linking al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks.437
The FBI quickly identified the hijackers, including leader Mohamed Atta, when his luggage was discovered at Boston's Logan Airport. Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19-seat commuter flight he took to Boston. Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays, the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned. The luggage contained the hijackers' names, assignments, and al-Qaeda connections. "It had all these Arab-language [sic] papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation", said one FBI agent.438 Within hours of the attacks, the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers.439440 Abu Jandal, who served as bin Laden's chief bodyguard for years, confirmed the identity of seven hijackers as al-Qaeda members during interrogations with the FBI on September 17. He had been jailed in a Yemeni prison since 2000.441442 On September 27, photos of all 19 hijackers were released, along with information about possible nationalities and aliases.443 Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia, two were from the United Arab Emirates, one was from Egypt, and one was from Lebanon.444
By midday, the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden.445 Two of the hijackers were known to have traveled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000446 and hijacker Mohamed Atta had previously gone to Afghanistan.447 He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg.448 One of the members of the Hamburg cell in Germany was discovered to have been in communication with Khalid Sheikh Mohammed who was identified as a member of Al-Qaeda.449
Authorities in the United States and the United Kingdom also obtained electronic intercepts, including telephone conversations and electronic bank transfers, which indicated that Mohammed Atef, a bin Laden deputy, was a key figure in the planning of the 9/11 attacks. Intercepts were also obtained of conversations that took place days before September 11 between bin Laden and an associate in Pakistan referring to "an incident that would take place in America on, or around, September 11" and discussing potential repercussions. In another conversation with an associate in Afghanistan, bin Laden discussed the "scale and effects of a forthcoming operation". These conversations did not specifically mention the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, or other specifics.450
Origins of the 19 hijackers| Nationality | Number |
|---|---|
| Saudi Arabia | 15 |
| United Arab Emirates | 2 |
| Egypt | 1 |
| Lebanon | 1 |
In their annual violent crime index for the year 2001, the FBI recorded the deaths from the attacks as murder, in separate tables so as not to mix them with other reported crimes for that year.451 In a disclaimer, the FBI stated that "the number of deaths is so great that combining it with the traditional crime statistics will have an outlier effect that falsely skews all types of measurements in the program's analyses".452 New York City also did not include the deaths in their annual crime statistics for 2001.453
CIA
Further information: September 11 intelligence before the attacks
In 2004, John L. Helgerson, the Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), conducted an internal review of the agency's pre-9/11 performance and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism.454 According to Philip Giraldi in The American Conservative, Helgerson criticized their failure to stop two of the 9/11 hijackers, Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, as they entered the United States and their failure to share information on the two men with the FBI.455
In May 2007, senators from both major U.S. political parties (the Republican and Democratic parties) drafted legislation to make the review public. One of the backers, Senator Ron Wyden said, "The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9/11".456 The report was released in 2009 by President Barack Obama.457
Congressional inquiry
Main article: Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001
In February 2002, the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the U.S. Intelligence Community.458 Their 832-page report released in December 2002459 detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information, including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States, to disrupt the plots.460 The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of Saudi Arabian government officials from non-classified sources.461 The Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified.462 In December 2002, the inquiry's chair Bob Graham revealed in an interview that there was "evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States".463 Victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission.464 September 11 victim families,465 members of Congress466 and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking the release of the documents.467468 In June 2016, CIA chief John Brennan said that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9/11 will soon be made public, and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks.469
In September 2016, Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act that would allow relatives of victims of the September 11 attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks.470471472
9/11 Commission
Main articles: 9/11 Commission and 9/11 Commission Report
See also: Criticism of the 9/11 Commission
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, popularly known as the 9/11 Commission, chaired by Thomas Kean,473 was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks, including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks.474 The commission issued the 9/11 Commission Report in July 2004, a 585-page report based on its investigations. The report detailed the events leading up to the attacks, concluding that they were carried out by al-Qaeda.475 The commission also examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks.
According to the report, "We believe the 9/11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures: in imagination, policy, capabilities, and management".476 The commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks, and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented.477
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Main article: NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation
See also: 7 World Trade Center (1987–2001) § 9/11 and collapse
The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) investigated the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC. The investigations examined why the buildings collapsed and what fire protection measures were in place, and evaluated how fire protection systems might be improved in future construction.478 The investigation into the collapse of 1 WTC and 2 WTC was concluded in October 2005 and that of 7 WTC was completed in August 2008.479
NIST found that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that had this not occurred, the towers likely would have remained standing.480 A 2007 study of the north tower's collapse published by researchers of Purdue University determined that since the plane's impact had stripped off much of the structure's thermal insulation, the heat from a typical office fire would have softened and weakened the exposed girders and columns enough to initiate the collapse regardless of the number of columns cut or damaged by the impact.481482
The director of the original investigation stated that "the towers did amazingly well. The terrorist aircraft didn't bring the buildings down; it was the fire that followed. It was proven that you could take out two-thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand".483 The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors, making the floors sag. The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns causing the exterior columns to bow inward.
With the damage to the core columns, the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings, causing them to collapse. Additionally, the report found the towers' stairwells were not properly reinforced to provide adequate emergency escape for people above the impact zones.484 NIST concluded that uncontrolled fires in 7 WTC caused floor beams and girders to heat and subsequently "caused a critical support column to fail, initiating a fire-induced progressive collapse that brought the building down".485
Alleged Saudi government role
Main article: Alleged Saudi government role in the September 11 attacks
See also: Saudi Arabia–United States relations, Saudi Arabia and state-sponsored terrorism, and The 28 pages
In July 2016, the Obama administration released a document compiled by U.S. investigators Dana Lesemann and Michael Jacobson, known as "File 17",486 which contains a list naming three dozen people, including the suspected Saudi intelligence officers attached to Saudi Arabia's embassy in Washington, D.C.,487 which connects Saudi Arabia to the hijackers.488489
In September 2016, Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act.490491 The practical effect of the legislation was to allow the continuation of a longstanding civil lawsuit brought by families of victims of the September 11 attacks against Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks.492 In March 2018, a U.S. judge formally allowed a suit to move forward against the government of Saudi Arabia brought by 9/11 survivors and victims' families.493
In 2022, the families of some 9/11 victims obtained two videos and a notepad seized from Saudi national Omar al-Bayoumi by the British courts. The first video showed him hosting a party in San Diego for Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, the first two hijackers to arrive in the U.S. The other video showed al-Bayoumi greeting the cleric Anwar al-Awlaki, who was blamed for radicalizing Americans and later killed in a CIA drone strike. The notepad depicted a hand-drawn airplane and some mathematical equations that, according to a pilot's court statement, might have been used to calculate the rate of descent to get to a target. According to a 2017 FBI memo, from the late 1990s until the 9/11 attack, al-Bayoumi was a paid cooptee of the Saudi General Intelligence Presidency. As of April 2022 he is believed to be living in Saudi Arabia, which has denied any involvement in 9/11.494
Rebuilding and memorials
Reconstruction
Main articles: Rescue and recovery effort after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and Construction of One World Trade Center
Further information: World Trade Center (2001–present) and World Trade Center site
On the day of the attacks, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated: "We will rebuild. We're going to come out of this stronger than before, politically stronger, economically stronger. The skyline will be made whole again".495
Within hours of the attack, a substantial search and rescue operation was launched. After months of around-the-clock operations, the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002.496 The damaged section of the Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks.497 The temporary World Trade Center PATH station opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7 World Trade Center was completed in 2006. Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006 when leaseholder Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing.498 The construction of One World Trade Center began in April 2006, and reached its full height in May 2013. The spire was installed atop the building at that date, putting One WTC's height at 1,776 feet (541 m) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.499500 One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3, 2014.501502503
On the World Trade Center site, three more office towers were to be built one block east of where the original towers stood.504 4 WTC, meanwhile, opened in November 2013, making it the second tower on the site to open behind 7 World Trade Center, as well as the first building on the Port Authority property.505 3 WTC opened in June 2018, becoming the fourth skyscraper at the site to be completed.506 In December 2022, the Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church fully reopened for regular services507 followed by the opening of the Ronald O. Perelman Performing Arts Center in September 2023.508 With construction beginning in 2008,509 2 World Trade Center remains as of 2025 unfinished.510 Scale models of the building were publicly revealed in September 2024, although Silverstein Properties was still trying to secure funding for the tower at the time.511512
Memorials
Main article: Memorials and services for the September 11 attacks
In the days immediately following the attacks, many memorials and vigils were held around the world, and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around Ground Zero. A witness described being unable to "get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed. Their pictures are everywhere, on phone booths, street lights, and walls of subway stations. Everything reminded me of a huge funeral, people were quiet and sad, but also very nice. Before, New York gave me a cold feeling; now people were reaching out to help each other".513 President Bush proclaimed Friday, September 14, 2001, as Patriot Day.514
One of the first memorials was the Tribute in Light, an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers.515 In New York City, the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site.516 The winning design, Reflecting Absence, was selected in August 2006, and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers, surrounded by a list of the victims' names in an underground memorial space.517 The memorial was completed on the 10th anniversary of the attacks in 2011;518 a museum also opened on site in May 2014.519
The Sphere by the German sculptor Fritz Koenig is the world's largest bronze sculpture of modern times, and stood between the Twin Towers on the Austin J. Tobin Plaza from 1971 until the attacks. The sculpture, weighing more than 20 tons, was the only remaining work of art to be recovered largely intact from the ruins of the towers. Since then, the work of art, known in the U.S. as The Sphere, has been transformed into a symbolic monument of 9/11 commemoration. After being dismantled and stored near a hangar at John F. Kennedy International Airport, the sculpture was the subject of the 2001 documentary The Sphere by filmmaker Percy Adlon. In August 2017, the work was installed at Liberty Park, close to the new World Trade Center aerial and the 9/11 Memorial.520
In Arlington County, the Pentagon Memorial was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008.521522 It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon.523 When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001–2002, a private chapel and indoor memorial were included at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building.524
In Shanksville, a concrete-and-glass visitor center was opened in 2015,525 situated on a hill overlooking the crash site and the white marble Wall of Names.526 An observation platform at the visitor center and the white marble wall are both aligned beneath the path of Flight 93.527528 New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon.529 It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25, 2008.530 Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere. Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims' families and by many other organizations and private figures.531
On every anniversary in New York City, the names of the victims who died there are read out over music. The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon,532 and asks Americans to observe Patriot Day with a moment of silence. Smaller services are held in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, which are usually attended by the First Lady. In 2023, Joe Biden did not attend services in the affected areas, instead marking the day in Anchorage, Alaska, the only U.S. president to do so since the attacks.533534535
See also
- 9/11 Commission
- Attacks on the United States
- Terrorism in the United States
- Bojinka plot
- Delta 1989 and Korean 085, two other flights that were falsely suspected of being hijacked as part of the September 11 attacks
- List of cultural references to the September 11 attacks
- Khobar Towers bombing
- List of aviation incidents involving terrorism
- List of deadliest terrorist attacks in the United States
- List of Islamist terrorist attacks
- List of major terrorist incidents
- List of terrorist incidents in 2001
- List of terrorist incidents in New York City
- Operation Yellow Ribbon
- Timeline of al-Qaeda attacks
- Timeline of the September 11 attacks
- USS Cole bombing
- 1993 World Trade Center bombing
- 1998 United States embassy bombings
- Post-9/11
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
- "'We Have Some Planes': Inside the Four Flights" (PDF). 9/11 Commission Report (Report). National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. 2004. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Alavosius, Mark P.; Rodriquez, Nischal J. (2005). "Unity of Purpose/Unity of effort: Private-Sector Preparedness in Times of Terror". Disaster Prevention and Management. 14 (5): 666. Bibcode:2005DisPM..14..666A. doi:10.1108/09653560510634098.
- "American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report" (PDF). National Transportation Safety Board. January 31, 2002. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
- Averill, Jason D. (2005). Final Reports of the Federal Building and Fire Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster (PDF) (Report). National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 9, 2009. Retrieved September 2, 2011.
- Bergen, Peter L. (2001). Holy War, Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama Bin Laden. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-3467-2. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Bergen, Peter (2006). The Osama Bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of Al Qaeda's Leader. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-9592-5. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Berner, Brad (2007). The World According to Al Qaeda. Peacock. ISBN 978-81-248-0114-7. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Bodnar, John. Divided by Terror: American Patriotism after 9/11 (University of North Carolina Press, 2021)
- Clarke, Richard (2004). Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-6024-4.
- Dwyer, Jim; Flynn, Kevin (2005). 102 Minutes. Times. ISBN 978-0-8050-7682-0. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7 (Report). National Institute of Standards and Technology. November 2008. Retrieved April 11, 2012.
- "Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77" (PDF). National Transportation Safety Board. February 19, 2002. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
- Fouda, Yosri; Fielding, Nick (2004). Masterminds of Terror: The Truth Behind the Most Devastating Terrorist Attack the World Has Ever Seen. Arcade. ISBN 978-1-55970-717-6. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Goldberg, Alfred; et al. (2007). Pentagon 9/11. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. ISBN 978-0-16-078328-9. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Graff, Garrett M. (2019). The Only Plane in the Sky: An Oral History of 9/11. New York: Avid Reader. ISBN 978-1-5011-8220-4.
- Gunaratna, Ronan (2002). Inside Al Qaeda: global network of terror. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12692-2.
- Holmes, Stephen (2006). "Al Qaeda, September 11, 2001". In Gambetta, Diego (ed.). Making sense of suicide missions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929797-9. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Ibrahim, Raymond; bin Laden, Osama (2007). The Al Qaeda reader. Random House. ISBN 978-0-385-51655-6. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Javorsek, Daniel II; Rose, John; Marshall, Christopher; Leitner, Peter (August 5, 2015). "A Formal Risk-Effectiveness Analysis Proposal for the Compartmentalized Intelligence Security Structure". International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence. 28 (4): 734–761. doi:10.1080/08850607.2015.1051830. S2CID 152911592.
- Jessee, Devin (2006). "Tactical Means, Strategic Ends: Al Qaeda's Use of Denial and Deception" (PDF). International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence. 18 (3): 367–388. doi:10.1080/09546550600751941. S2CID 144349098. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 21, 2021. Retrieved March 23, 2016.
- Kelley, Christopher (2006). Executing the Constitution: putting the president back into the Constitution. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6727-5. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Keppel, Gilles; Milelli, Jean-Pierre; Ghazaleh, Pascale (2008). Al Qaeda in its own words. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02804-3. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Lawrence, Bruce (2005). Messages to the world: the statements of Osama Bin Laden. Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-045-1. Retrieved May 29, 2014.
- Martin, Gus (2011). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism, Second Edition. Sage. ISBN 978-1-4129-8017-3. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- McDermott, Terry (2005). Perfect Soldiers: The 9/11 Hijackers. HarperCollins. pp. 191–192. ISBN 978-0-06-058470-2.
- "McKinsey Report". FDNY / McKinsey & Company. August 9, 2002. Archived from the original on June 3, 2010. Retrieved September 25, 2011.
- Mearsheimer, John J. (2007). The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-374-17772-0.
- Murdico, Suzanne (2003). Osama Bin Laden. Rosen. ISBN 978-0-8239-4467-5.
- "The Pentagon Building Performance Report" (PDF). American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). January 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 21, 2011. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
- Summers, Anthony; Swan, Robbyn (2011). The Eleventh Day: The Full Story of 9/11 and Osama Bin Laden. New York: Ballantine. ISBN 978-1-4000-6659-9. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- Sunder, Shyam S. (September 2005). Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers. National Institute of Standards and Technology. NIST NCSTAR 1. Retrieved September 11, 2024.
- "World Trade Center Building Performance Study – Bankers Trust Building" (PDF). Federal Emergency Management Agency. May 2002. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
- "World Trade Center Building Performance Study – Peripheral Buildings" (PDF). Federal Emergency Management Agency. May 2002. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
- "World Trade Center Building Performance Study" (PDF). Federal Emergency Management Agency. 2002. Retrieved September 2, 2011.
- Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2.
- Yitzhak, Ronen (Summer 2016). "The War Against Terrorism and For Stability of the Hashemite Regime: Jordanian Intelligence Challenges in the 21st Century". International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence. 29 (2): 213–235. doi:10.1080/08850607.2016.1121038. S2CID 155138286.
Further reading
- 9/11 Commission Report. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks. July 30, 2010. ISBN 978-1-61640-219-8.
- Atkins, Stephen E. (2011). The 9/11 Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-921-9.
- Bolton, M. Kent (2006). U.S. National Security and Foreign Policymaking After 9/11: Present at the Re-creation. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5900-4.
- Caraley, Demetrios (2002). September 11, terrorist attacks, and U.S. foreign policy. Academy of Political Science. ISBN 978-1-884853-01-2.
- Chernick, Howard (2005). Resilient city: the economic impact of 9/11. Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 978-0-87154-170-3.
- Damico, Amy M.; Quay, Sara E. (2010). September 11 in Popular Culture: A Guide. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-35505-9.
- Hampton, Wilborn (2003). September 11, 2001: attack on New York City. Candlewick. ISBN 978-0-7636-1949-7.
- Langley, Andrew (2006). September 11: Attack on America. Compass Point. ISBN 978-0-7565-1620-8.
- Neria, Yuval; Gross, Raz; Marshall, Randall D.; Susser, Ezra S. (2006). 9/11: mental health in the wake of terrorist attacks. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83191-8.
- Ryan, Allan A. (2015). The 9/11 Terror Cases: Constitutional Challenges in the War against Al Qaeda. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-2132-3.
- Strasser, Steven; Whitney, Craig R. (2004). The 9/11 investigations: staff reports of the 9/11 Commission: excerpts from the House-Senate joint inquiry report on 9/11: testimony from fourteen key witnesses, including Richard Clarke, George Tenet, and Condoleezza Rice. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-279-4.
External links
- National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States official commission website
- List of victims
- September 11, 2001, Documentary Project from the U.S. Library of Congress, Memory.loc.gov
- September 11, 2001, Web Archive from the U.S. Library of Congress, Minerva
- National Security Archive
- September 11 Digital Archive: Saving the Histories of September 11, 2001, from the Center for History and New Media and the American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning
- DoD: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024, from Wikisource
- The 9/11 Legacies Project, Oriental Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague
- 9/11 at 20: A Week of Reflection, Responsible Statecraft, The Quincy Institute
- September 11, 2001 collection at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History
Multimedia
- Day of Terror Video Archive – CNN.com
References
Al-Qaeda's name for the events is the Manhattan Raid, though this name is rarely used by non-jihadist sources.[5] /wiki/Jihadist ↩
The expression 9/11 is typically pronounced "nine eleven" in English,[6] even in places that use the opposite date format. The slash is not pronounced. ↩
The exact time is disputed. The 9/11 Commission Report states that Flight 11 struck the North Tower at 08:46:40 a.m.,[7] NIST reports 08:46:30 a.m.,[8] and some other sources claim 08:46:26 a.m.[9] /wiki/9/11_Commission_Report ↩
The exact time is disputed. The 9/11 Commission Report states that Flight 175 struck the South Tower at 09:03:11 a.m.,[10][11] NIST reports 09:02:59 a.m.,[12] and some other sources claim 09:03:02 a.m.[13] In any case, the 16-minute gap between each impact is rounded to 17.[14] ↩
While NIST and the 9/11 Commission give differing accounts of the exact second of the North Tower's collapse initiation, with NIST placing it at 10:28:22 a.m.[15][16] and the commission at 10:28:25 a.m.,[17] it is generally accepted that Flight 11 did not strike the North Tower any sooner than 8:46:26 a.m.,[9] so the time it took for the North Tower to collapse was just shy of 102 minutes either way. ↩
Excluding the hijackers ↩
Berger, Miriam (May 15, 2023). "Post-9/11 wars have contributed to some 4.5 million deaths, report suggests". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 29, 2023. Retrieved May 26, 2024. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/05/15/war-on-terror-911-deaths-afghanistan-iraq/ ↩
"Bin Laden's fatwā (1996)". NewsHour. PBS. Archived from the original on October 31, 2001. Retrieved May 29, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20011031024057/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html ↩
"Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa". NewsHour. PBS. Archived from the original on November 28, 2013. Retrieved May 29, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20131128194258/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html ↩
"Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa". NewsHour. PBS. Archived from the original on November 28, 2013. Retrieved May 29, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20131128194258/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html ↩
Logevall, Fredrik (2002). Terrorism and 9/11: A Reader. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-25535-4. 0-618-25535-4 ↩
"The Hamburg connection". BBC News. August 19, 2005. Archived from the original on May 30, 2013. Retrieved June 26, 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2349195.stm ↩
"5 Al Qaeda Aims at the American Homeland". 9/11 Commission. Archived August 16, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm ↩
Miller, John. ""Greetings, America. My name is Osama Bin Laden..."". Frontline. PBS. Archived from the original on November 24, 2023. Retrieved December 7, 2023. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/miller.html ↩
Miller, John. ""Greetings, America. My name is Osama Bin Laden..."". PBS. Archived from the original on February 11, 2001. https://web.archive.org/web/20010211145335/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/miller.html ↩
"Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11". CBC News. October 29, 2004. Archived from the original on February 18, 2010. Retrieved September 1, 2011. Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden appeared in a new message aired on an Arabic TV station Friday night, for the first time claiming direct responsibility for the 2001 attacks against the United States. https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-9-11-1.513654 ↩
"Pakistan inquiry orders Bin Laden family to remain". BBC News. July 6, 2011. Archived from the original on November 30, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14041604 ↩
"Full transcript of bin Laden's speech". Al Jazeera. November 2, 2004. Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20070613014620/http://english.aljazeera.net/English/archive/archive?ArchiveId=7403 ↩
"Pakistan to Demand Taliban Give Up Bin Laden as Iran Seals Afghan Border". Fox News. September 16, 2001. Archived from the original on May 23, 2010. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://www.foxnews.com/story/pakistan-to-demand-taliban-give-up-bin-laden-as-iran-seals-afghan-border ↩
"Bin Laden on tape: Attacks 'benefited Islam greatly'". CNN. December 14, 2001. Archived from the original on December 27, 2007. Retrieved November 24, 2013. Reveling in the details of the fatal attacks, bin Laden brags in Arabic that he knew about them beforehand and said the destruction went beyond his hopes. He says the attacks "benefited Islam greatly". https://web.archive.org/web/20071227125232/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/12/13/ret.bin.laden.videotape/ ↩
"Transcript: Bin Laden video excerpts". BBC News. December 27, 2001. Archived from the original on July 27, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1729882.stm ↩
"Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11". CBC News. October 29, 2004. Archived from the original on February 18, 2010. Retrieved September 1, 2011. Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden appeared in a new message aired on an Arabic TV station Friday night, for the first time claiming direct responsibility for the 2001 attacks against the United States. https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-9-11-1.513654 ↩
bin Laden, Osama (November 1, 2004). "Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved June 3, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2004/11/1/full-transcript-of-bin-ladins-speech ↩
"Bin Laden Dead – Where Are Other 9/11 Planners?". ABC News. May 2, 2011. Archived from the original on May 4, 2011. Retrieved February 2, 2019. While initially denying responsibility for the 9/11 attacks, Bin Laden took responsibility for them in a 2004 taped statement, saying that he had personally directed the hijackers. https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/osama-bin-laden-dead-911-perpetrators-now/story?id=13511484 ↩
"Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11". CBC News. October 29, 2004. Archived from the original on February 18, 2010. Retrieved February 2, 2019. https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-9-11-1.513654 ↩
"Bin Laden 9/11 planning video aired". CBC News. September 7, 2006. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20071013183902/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-9-11-planning-video-aired-1.618703 ↩
"We left out nuclear targets, for now". The Guardian. London. March 4, 2003. Archived from the original on January 23, 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2011. Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel al-Jazeera is the only journalist to have interviewed Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the al-Qaeda military commander arrested at the weekend. https://web.archive.org/web/20080123195032/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C3604%2C906911%2C00.html ↩
Leonard, Tom; Spillius, Alex (October 10, 2008). "Alleged 9/11 mastermind wants to confess to plot". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/3685099/Alleged-911-mastermind-wants-to-confess-to-plot.html ↩
"September 11 suspect 'confesses'". Al Jazeera. March 15, 2007. Archived from the original on September 27, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2011. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2007/03/200852512026300115.html ↩
9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 147. ↩
"White House power grabs". The Washington Times. August 26, 2009. Archived from the original on December 5, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2011. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/26/white-house-power-grabs/ ↩
Van Voris, Bob; Hurtado, Patricia (April 4, 2011). "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Terror Indictment Unsealed, Dismissed". Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on April 17, 2011. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110417023034/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-04-04/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-terror-indictment-unsealed-dismissed.html ↩
"Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" (PDF). United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. 2006. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 26, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20191026151908/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/defense/941.pdf ↩
"Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa". NewsHour. PBS. Archived from the original on November 28, 2013. Retrieved May 29, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20131128194258/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html ↩
"[Text of] Bin Laden's [1996] Fatwa". NewsHour. PBS. Archived from the original on April 19, 2014. Retrieved June 14, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140419014901/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military-july-dec96-fatwa_1996/ ↩
Gunarathna, pp. 61–62. ↩
bin Laden, Osama (2005). "Declaration of Jihad". In Lawrence, Bruce (ed.). Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden. London: Verso. pp. 139–141. ISBN 1-84467-045-7. The targets of September 11 were not women and children. The main targets were the symbol of the United States: their economic and military power. 1-84467-045-7 ↩
"Muslims have the right to attack America". The Guardian. November 10, 2001. Archived from the original on August 25, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130825215127/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/nov/11/terrorism.afghanistan1 ↩
*"Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved April 10, 2012. bin Laden, Osama (November 24, 2002). "Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'". The Observer. London. Archived from the original on July 28, 2013. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20160101093303/http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html ↩
See: Mearsheimer (2007), p. 67. Kushner (2003), p. 389. Murdico (2003), p. 64. Kelley (2006), p. 207. Ibrahim (2007), p. 276. Berner (2007), p. 80 - Berner, Brad (2007). The World According to Al Qaeda. Peacock. ISBN 978-81-248-0114-7. Retrieved March 18, 2016. https://books.google.com/books?id=smP3gFyQpXQC&pg=PP1 ↩
"Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'". The Guardian. November 24, 2002. Archived from the original on October 8, 2014. Retrieved January 7, 2019. The blood pouring out of Palestine must be equally revenged. You must know that the Palestinians do not cry alone; their women are not widowed alone; their sons are not orphaned alone... American people have chosen, consented to, and affirmed their support for the Israeli oppression of the Palestinians, the occupation and usurpation of their land, and its continuous killing, torture, punishment and expulsion of the Palestinians. The American people have the ability and choice to refuse the policies of their government and even to change them if they want. (b) The American people are the ones who pay the taxes that fund the planes that bomb us in Afghanistan, the tanks that strike and destroy our homes in Palestine, the armies that occupy our lands in the Arabian Gulf, and the fleets that ensure the blockade of Iraq. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver ↩
Riedel, Bruce (2008). "The Manhattan Raid". The Search for Al Qaeda. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-8157-0451-5. The Palestinian intifada, the fierce uprising in the fall of 2000 on the West Bank and Gaza, was a particularly powerful motivating event for.. bin Laden... The intifada's power over bin Laden's thinking about the 9/11 raid is underscored by his repeated attempts to push KSM to advance the timing of the crashes. In September of 2000, he urged KSM to tell Atta to attack immediately to respond to the Sharon visit to the holy sites in Jerusalem; Atta told bin Laden he was not ready yet. When bin Laden learned that Sharon, who had become Israel's prime minister in March 2001, was going to visit the White House early that summer, he again pressed Atta to attack immediately. And again Atta demurred, arguing he needed more time to get the plan and the team ready to go. 978-0-8157-0451-5 ↩
Holbrook, Donald (2014). The Al-Qaeda Doctrine. New York: Bloomsbury. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-62356-314-1. 978-1-62356-314-1 ↩
Greenberg, Karen J. (2005). "October 21, 2001 – Interview with Tayseer Alouni". Al Qaeda Now. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–206. ISBN 978-0-521-85911-0. Last year's blessed intifada helped us to push more for the Palestinian issue. This push helps the other cause. Attacking America helps the cause of Palestine and vice versa. No conflict between the two; on the contrary, one serves the other. 978-0-521-85911-0 ↩
See: Plotz, David (2001). "What Does Osama Bin Laden Want?". Slate. Archived from the original on May 9, 2025. Bergen (2001), p. 3 Yusufzai, Rahimullah (September 26, 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on January 19, 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2011. "US pulls out of Saudi Arabia". BBC News. April 29, 2003. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved September 3, 2011. "Saga of Dr. Zawahri Sheds Light on the Roots of al Qaeda Terror". The Wall Street Journal. July 2, 2002. Archived from the original on December 30, 2018. Retrieved September 3, 2011. "Tenth Public Hearing, Testimony of Louis Freeh". 9/11 Commission. April 13, 2004. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved September 3, 2011. "Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders: World Islamic Front Statement". Federation of American Scientists. February 23, 1998. Archived from the original on April 21, 2010. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2001/09/what-does-osama-bin-laden-want.html ↩
*"Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved April 10, 2012. bin Laden, Osama (November 24, 2002). "Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'". The Observer. London. Archived from the original on July 28, 2013. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20160101093303/http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html ↩
"Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'". The Guardian. London. November 24, 2002. Archived from the original on April 18, 2010. Retrieved April 26, 2010. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver ↩
"Osama bin Laden's aide Ayman al-Zawahiri rants on global warming – Mirror.co.uk". Daily Mirror. Archived from the original on May 11, 2008. Retrieved May 14, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20080511161707/http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/topstories/2008/04/23/osama-bin-laden-s-aide-ayman-al-zawahiri-rants-on-global-warming-89520-20391770/ ↩
Kates, Brian (January 30, 2010). "Al Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden blasts U.S. in audiotape spewing hate for... global warming". New York Daily News. Archived from the original on February 1, 2010. Retrieved December 7, 2023. http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/2010/01/29/2010-01-29_al_qaeda_leader_osama_bin_laden_blasts_us_in_tape_for_global_warming.html ↩
"Full transcript of bin Laden's 'Letter to America'". The Guardian. London. November 24, 2002. Archived from the original on April 26, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20190426123409/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver ↩
bin Laden, Osama. "Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved April 10, 2012. So I shall talk to you about the story behind those events and shall tell you truthfully about the moments in which the decision was taken, for you to consider https://web.archive.org/web/20160101093303/http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html ↩
Bergen, Peter L. (2005). Holy War, Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama Bin Laden. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-3467-2. Retrieved March 20, 2020. 978-0-7432-3467-2 ↩
Pape, Robert A. (2005). Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-8129-7338-9. Retrieved March 20, 2020. 978-0-8129-7338-9 ↩
"1998 Al Qaeda fatwā". Federation of American Scientists (FAS). February 23, 1998. Archived from the original on April 21, 2010. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm ↩
Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 211, 506n. https://archive.org/details/eleventhdayfulls0000summ/page/211/mode/1up ↩
Lawrence (2005), p. 239. ↩
See: Mearsheimer (2007), p. 67. Kushner (2003), p. 389. Murdico (2003), p. 64. Kelley (2006), p. 207. Ibrahim (2007), p. 276. Berner (2007), p. 80 - Berner, Brad (2007). The World According to Al Qaeda. Peacock. ISBN 978-81-248-0114-7. Retrieved March 18, 2016. https://books.google.com/books?id=smP3gFyQpXQC&pg=PP1 ↩
Yusufzai, Rahimullah (September 26, 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on January 19, 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/26/afghanistan.terrorism3 ↩
"Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. November 4, 2004. Archived from the original on November 14, 2016. Retrieved August 24, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161114080708/http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html%20online%20here ↩
In his taped broadcast from January 2010, bin Laden said "Our attacks against you [the United States] will continue as long as U.S. support for Israel continues. ... The message sent to you with the attempt by the hero Nigerian Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab is a confirmation of our previous message conveyed by the heroes of September 11". Quoted from "Bin Laden: Attacks on U.S. to go on as long as it supports Israel" Archived December 16, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, in Haaretz.com /wiki/Umar_Farouk_Abdulmutallab ↩
Bernard Lewis, 2004. In Bernard Lewis's 2004 book The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror, he argues that animosity toward the West is best understood with the decline of the once powerful Ottoman empire, compounded by the import of western ideas – Arab socialism, Arab liberalism and Arab secularism /wiki/Bernard_Lewis ↩
In "The spirit of terrorism", Jean Baudrillard described 9/11 as the first global event that "questions the very process of globalization". Baudrillard. "The spirit of terrorism". Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved June 26, 2011. /wiki/Jean_Baudrillard ↩
In an essay entitled "Somebody Else's Civil War", Michael Scott Doran argues the attacks are best understood as part of a religious conflict within the Muslim world and that bin Laden's followers "consider themselves an island of true believers surrounded by a sea of iniquity". Hoping that U.S. retaliation would unite the faithful against the West, bin Laden sought to spark revolutions in Arab nations and elsewhere. Doran argues the Osama bin Laden videos attempt to provoke a visceral reaction in the Middle East and ensure that Muslim citizens would react as violently as possible to an increase in U.S. involvement in their region. (Doran, Michael Scott. "Somebody Else's Civil War". Foreign Affairs. No. January/February 2002. Archived from the original on April 23, 2015. Retrieved December 5, 2009. Reprinted in Hoge, James F.; Rose, Gideon (2005). Understanding the War on Terror. New York: Norton. pp. 72–75. ISBN 978-0-87609-347-4.) 978-0-87609-347-4 ↩
In The Osama bin Laden I Know, Peter Bergen argues the attacks were part of a plan to cause the United States to increase its military and cultural presence in the Middle East, thereby forcing Muslims to confront the idea of a non-Muslim government and to eventually establish conservative Islamic governments in the region.(Bergen (2006), p. 229) /wiki/Peter_Bergen ↩
Lahoud, Nelly (2022). The Bin Laden Papers: How the Abbottabad Raid Revealed the Truth about al-Qaeda, Its Leader and His Family. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 16–19, 307. ISBN 978-0-300-26063-2."The Birth of the Idea of September 11" (in Arabic). Central Intelligence Agency. September 2002. Archived from the original on April 15, 2022. Retrieved April 15, 2022. 978-0-300-26063-2 ↩
"Suspect 'reveals 9/11 planning'". BBC News. September 22, 2003. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved September 3, 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3128802.stm ↩
9/11 Commission Report (2004), Chapter 5, pp. ??[page needed] /wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources ↩
9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 67. ↩
9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 149. ↩
9/11 Commission Report (2004), Chapter 5, pp. ??[page needed] /wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources ↩
Lichtblau, Eric (March 20, 2003). "Bin Laden Chose 9/11 Targets, Al Qaeda Leader Says". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 30, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/20/us/threats-and-responses-the-plot-bin-laden-chose-9-11-targets-al-qaeda-leader-says.html ↩
Wright (2006), p. 308. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Bergen (2006), p. 283. - Bergen, Peter (2006). The Osama Bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of Al Qaeda's Leader. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-9592-5. Retrieved March 18, 2016. https://books.google.com/books?id=_XkM92XMlQ4C&pg=PP1 ↩
Wright (2006), pp. 309–315. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
McDermott (2005), pp. 191–192. ↩
Bernstein, Richard (September 10, 2002). "On Path to the U.S. Skies, Plot Leader Met bin Laden". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 12, 2011. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html ↩
Wright (2006), pp. 304–307. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Wright (2006), p. 302. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
"9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" (PDF). 9/11 Commission. June 16, 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved September 11, 2012. https://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf ↩
"9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" (PDF). 9/11 Commission. June 16, 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved September 11, 2012. https://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf ↩
"9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" (PDF). 9/11 Commission. June 16, 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved September 11, 2012. https://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf ↩
"9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" (PDF). 9/11 Commission. June 16, 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved September 11, 2012. https://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf ↩
"9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" (PDF). 9/11 Commission. June 16, 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved September 11, 2012. https://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf ↩
"9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" (PDF). 9/11 Commission. June 16, 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved September 11, 2012. https://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf ↩
"Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel" (PDF). 9/11 Commission. 2004. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved September 3, 2011. https://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf ↩
Irujo, Jose María (March 21, 2004). "Atta recibió en Tarragona joyas para que los miembros del 'comando' del 11-S se hiciesen pasar por ricos saudíes" [Atta received jewellery in Tarragona so that members of the 9/11 'commando' could pass themselves off as wealthy Saudis.]. El País (in Spanish). Retrieved April 10, 2012. http://elpais.com/diario/2004/03/21/espana/1079823611_850215.html ↩
"Entry of the 9/11 Hijackers into the United States Staff Statement No. 1" (PDF). National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon The United States. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 14, 2020. Retrieved February 7, 2017. http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/staff_statement_1.pdf ↩
Wright (2006), pp. 310–312. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Clarke (2004), pp. 235–236. - Clarke, Richard (2004). Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-6024-4. https://archive.org/details/againstallenemie00clar ↩
Wright (2006), p. 344. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Clarke (2004), pp. 236–237. - Clarke, Richard (2004). Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-6024-4. https://archive.org/details/againstallenemie00clar ↩
Clarke (2004), pp. 242–243. - Clarke, Richard (2004). Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-6024-4. https://archive.org/details/againstallenemie00clar ↩
Wright (2006), p. 340. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Wright (2006), pp. 340–343. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Wright (2006), pp. 352–353. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Wright (2006), p. 350. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Yitzhak (2016), p. 218. - Yitzhak, Ronen (Summer 2016). "The War Against Terrorism and For Stability of the Hashemite Regime: Jordanian Intelligence Challenges in the 21st Century". International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence. 29 (2): 213–235. doi:10.1080/08850607.2016.1121038. S2CID 155138286. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08850607.2016.1121038 ↩
"The Osama bin Laden File: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 343". The National Security Archive. Archived from the original on July 13, 2017. Retrieved March 14, 2016. http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB343/ ↩
Wright (2006), pp. 350–351. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Wright (2006), pp. 342–343. - Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41486-2. https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig ↩
Javorsek et al. (2015), p. 742. - Javorsek, Daniel II; Rose, John; Marshall, Christopher; Leitner, Peter (August 5, 2015). "A Formal Risk-Effectiveness Analysis Proposal for the Compartmentalized Intelligence Security Structure". International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence. 28 (4): 734–761. doi:10.1080/08850607.2015.1051830. S2CID 152911592. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08850607.2015.1051830 ↩
Clarke (2004), p. 238. - Clarke, Richard (2004). Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-6024-4. https://archive.org/details/againstallenemie00clar ↩
The 9/11 Commission Report, pp. 4–14. ↩
"The Attack Looms". 9/11 Commission Report. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. 2004. Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved September 1, 2011. http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch7.htm ↩
The aircraft was a Boeing 767-200(Extended Range "ER") model; Boeing assigns a unique code for each company that buys one of its aircraft, which is applied as an infix to the model number at the time the aircraft is built, hence "767-223(ER)" designates a 767-200 built for American Airlines (customer code 23). /wiki/List_of_Boeing_customer_codes ↩
The aircraft was a Boeing 767-200 model; Boeing assigns a unique code for each company that buys one of its aircraft, which is applied as an infix to the model number at the time the aircraft is built, hence "767-222" designates a 767-200 built for United Airlines (customer code 22). /wiki/List_of_Boeing_customer_codes ↩
The exact time is disputed. The 9/11 Commission Report states that Flight 175 struck the South Tower at 09:03:11 a.m.,[10][11] NIST reports 09:02:59 a.m.,[12] and some other sources claim 09:03:02 a.m.[13] In any case, the 16-minute gap between each impact is rounded to 17.[14] ↩
The aircraft was a Boeing 757-200 model; Boeing assigns a unique code for each company that buys one of its aircraft, which is applied as an infix to the model number at the time the aircraft is built, hence "757-223" designates a 757-200 built for American Airlines (customer code 23). /wiki/List_of_Boeing_customer_codes ↩
The aircraft was a Boeing 757-200 model; Boeing assigns a unique code for each company that buys one of its aircraft, which is applied as an infix to the model number at the time the aircraft is built, hence "757-222" designates a 757-200 built for United Airlines (customer code 22). /wiki/List_of_Boeing_customer_codes ↩
Johnson, Glen (November 23, 2001). "Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on December 2, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121202072139/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm ↩
"Excerpt: A travel day like any other until some passengers left their seats". The Seattle Times. July 23, 2004. Archived from the original on November 19, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20111119033249/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2001986488_planes23.html ↩
"Inside the failed Air Force scramble to prevent the Sept. 11 attacks". MSNBC. June 28, 2004. Archived from the original on September 18, 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20090918164352/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5315883/ ↩
Woolley, Scott (April 23, 2007). "Video Prophet". Forbes. Archived from the original on December 16, 2008. Retrieved May 23, 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20081216103647/http://www.forbes.com/home/technology/forbes/2007/0423/068.html ↩
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The exact time is disputed. The 9/11 Commission Report states that Flight 175 struck the South Tower at 09:03:11 a.m.,[10][11] NIST reports 09:02:59 a.m.,[12] and some other sources claim 09:03:02 a.m.[13] In any case, the 16-minute gap between each impact is rounded to 17.[14] ↩
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See: McKinnon, Jim (September 16, 2001). "The phone line from Flight 93 was still open when a GTE operator heard Todd Beamer say: 'Are you guys ready? Let's roll'". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on October 1, 2019. Retrieved April 10, 2011. "Relatives wait for news as rescuers dig". CNN. September 13, 2001. Archived from the original on November 11, 2013. Retrieved November 11, 2013. Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 58, 463n, 476n. Wilgoren, Jodi; Wong, Edward (September 13, 2001). "On Doomed Flight, Passengers Vowed To Perish Fighting". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 20, 2009. Retrieved September 1, 2011. Serrano, Richard A. (April 11, 2006). "Moussaoui Jury Hears the Panic From 9/11". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved September 1, 2011. Goo, Sara Kehaulani; Eggen, Dan (January 28, 2004). "Hijackers used Mace, knives to take over airplanes". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on November 12, 2013. Retrieved November 12, 2013. Ahlers, Mike M. (January 27, 2004). "9/11 panel: Hijackers may have had utility knives". CBS News. Archived from the original on June 4, 2010. Retrieved September 1, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20191001003507/http://old.post-gazette.com/headlines/20010916phonecallnat3p3.asp ↩
The 9/11 Commission Report, pp. 4–14. ↩
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Summers and Swan (2011), p. 343. ↩
The 9/11 Commission Report, pp. 4–14. ↩
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NIST and the 9/11 Commission both state that the collapse began at 9:58:59 a.m., which is rounded to 9:59[138]: 84 [139]: 322 for simplicity. If the commission's claim that the South Tower was struck at 9:03:11 is to be believed, then the collapse began 55 minutes and 48 seconds after the crash, not 56 minutes. ↩
The exact time of the North Tower's collapse initiation is disputed, with NIST dubbing the moment it began to collapse as being 10:28:22 a.m.[140] and the 9/11 Commission recording the time as 10:28:25.[141]: 329 ↩
While NIST and the 9/11 Commission give differing accounts of the exact second of the North Tower's collapse initiation, with NIST placing it at 10:28:22 a.m.[15][16] and the commission at 10:28:25 a.m.,[17] it is generally accepted that Flight 11 did not strike the North Tower any sooner than 8:46:26 a.m.,[9] so the time it took for the North Tower to collapse was just shy of 102 minutes either way. ↩
World Trade Center Building Performance Study, Ch. 5 WTC 7 – section 5.5.4 ↩
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The massacre at Camp Speicher―often described as the second deadliest act of terrorism in history after 9/11―is said to have killed between 1,095 and 1,700 people.[152] The upper estimate would tie it with the attack on the World Trade Center's North Tower, but until the true death toll of the massacre becomes known, then the hijacking and crash of Flight 11 was the deadliest act of terrorism on record. /wiki/Camp_Speicher_massacre ↩
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Cite error: The named reference leakedout was invoked but never defined (see the help page). /wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text ↩
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