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Rumford Medal
Award

The Rumford Medal is an award bestowed by the Royal Society for "outstanding contributions in the field of physics". The award is named in honour of British scientist Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, who is noted for his works on thermodynamics and for establishing the Royal Institution. The award was created in 1796 after Thompson transferred £1,000 to the Royal Society in stocks, instructing the latter to grant the awardee the fund's interest as a premium. Thompson was awarded the inaugural award in 1800.

The award initially consisted of two medals, one each in silver and gold, struck in the same die. This was later replaced with a single medal made of silver gilt. The medal is awarded with a cash prize of £2,000. British painter Robert Smirke created the original design of the medal. The diameter of the medal is 3 inches (7.62 cm). The obverse featured a tripod altar with a flame upon it, circumscribed by a Latin inscription from Lucretius' poem De rerum natura "Noscere quae vis et causa". The reverse had the Latin inscription "Proemium optime merenti ex instituto Benj. a Rumford, S.R.I. Comitis: adjudicatum a Reg. Soc. Lond." surrounded by an ornamental border of leaves. This design was discontinued in 1863. As of 2024, the obverse of the medal has a portrait of Thompson, surrounded by the Latin inscription "Beniamin Ab Rvmford S. Rom. Imp. Comes Institvit" ("Benjamin Rumford, Count of the Holy Roman Empire, founded this"), with the Roman numeral MDCCXCVI (1796) on the exergue. The reverse has the Latin inscription "Optime In Lvcis Caloqisqve Natvra Exqvirena Merenti Adivdicat Soc: Reg: Lond." ("The Royal Society of London awards this to one outstandingly deserving in investigating the nature of light and heat") inscribed within a wreath of oak and laurel leaves bound with ribbons.

All citizens or residents of the Commonwealth of Nations or the Republic of Ireland for more than three years are eligible for the medal. Candidates for the medal are selected by the Royal Society Council on the recommendations of the Physical Sciences Awards Committee. Ten times during the early 19th century, no medals were awarded due to the unavailability of suitable candidates or political considerations of the Royal Society Council.

Since its inception, the medal has been granted to 108 scientists. It has been awarded to citizens of the United Kingdom sixty-seven times, France fourteen times, Germany seven times, the Netherlands seven times, Sweden four times, the United States thrice, Italy twice, Hungary twice, and once each to citizens of Australia, Belgium, Luxembourg, Mexico and New Zealand. The medal has been awarded to multiple individuals twice: in 1896, to Philipp Lenard and Wilhelm Röntgen and in 1918, to Charles Fabry and Alfred Perot. From 1800 to 2018, the medal was awarded biennially; since then it has been awarded annually. The most recent recipient is British physicist Tony Bell, who received it in 2024. British academic and engineer Polina Bayvel is the only female recipient.

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List of recipients

List of recipients of the Rumford Medal
YearPortraitNameNationalityRationaleNotes
1800Benjamin Thompson American British"For his various Discoveries respecting Heat and Light"141516
1802No award
1804John Leslie British"For his Experiments on Heat, published in his Work, entitled an Experimental Inquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat."1718
1806No award
1808William Murdoch British"For his publication of the employment of Gas from Coal, for the purpose of illumination"19
1810Étienne-Louis Malus French"For his discoveries of certain new Properties of Reflected Light, published in the Second Volume of the Mémoires d'Arcueil"2021
1812No award
1814—William Charles Wells British"For his Essay on Dew, published in the course of the preceding (1815) year"2223
1816Humphry Davy British"For his Papers on Combustion and Flame, published in the last volume of the Philosophical Transactions"2425
1818David Brewster British"For his Discoveries relating to the Polarisation of Light"2627
1820No award
1822No award
1824Augustin-Jean Fresnel French"For his development of the undulatory theory as applied to the phenomena of polarized light, and for his various important discoveries in Physical Optics"282930
1826No award
1828No award
1830No award
1832John Frederic Daniell British"For his paper, entitled, 'Further Experiments with a new Register Pyrometer, for measuring the Expansion of Solids,' published in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1831"3132
1834Macedonio Melloni Parmesan"For his discoveries relevant to radiant heat"333435
1836No award
1838James David Forbes British"For his 'Experiments on the Polarization of Heat,' published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh"3637
1840Jean-Baptiste Biot French"For his researches in, and connected with, the circular Polarization of Light"3839
1842William Fox Talbot British"For his discoveries and improvements in photography"4041
1844No award
1846Michael Faraday British"For his discovery of the Optical Phenomena developed by the action of Magnets and Electric Currents in certain Transparent Media, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1846"4243
1848Henri Victor Regnault French"For his 'Experiments to determine the Laws and the numerical data which enter into the calculation of Steam-Engines'"44
1850François Arago French"For his 'Experimental Investigations on Polarized Light,' the concluding memoirs on which were communicated to the Academy of Sciences of Paris during the last two years"45
1852George Gabriel Stokes British"For his 'Discovery of the Change in the Refrangibility of Light'"4647
1854Neil Arnott British"For the successful construction of a new smoke-consuming and fuel-saving fire-grate, described in the Journal of the Society of Arts of May 12, 1854"48
1856Louis Pasteur French"For his discovery of the nature of racemic acid, and its relations to polarized light, and for the researches to which he was led by that discovery"49
1858Jules Jamin French"For his various Experimental Researches on Light"5051
1860James Clerk Maxwell British"For his Researches on the Composition of Colours, and other Optical papers"5253
1862Gustav Kirchhoff Prussian"For his researches on the fixed lines of the solar spectrum, and on the inversion of the bright lines in the spectra of artificial light"54
1864John Tyndall British"For his researches on the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours"55
1866Hippolyte Fizeau French"For his Optical Researches, and especially for his investigations into the Effect of Heat on the Refractive Power of Transparent Bodies"56
1868Balfour Stewart British"For his researches on the qualitative as well as quantitative relation between the emissive and absorptive powers of bodies for heat and light, published originally in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, and now made more generally accessible by the publication in 1866 of his treatise on heat"57
1870Alfred Des Cloizeaux French"For his researches in Mineralogical Optics"5859
1872Anders Jonas Ångström Swedish"For his Researches on Spectral Analysis"60
1874Joseph Norman Lockyer British"For his spectroscopic researches on the sun and on the chemical elements"61
1876Jules Janssen French"For his numerous & important researches in the radiation and absorption of light, carried on chiefly by means of the spectroscope"6263
1878Alfred Cornu French"For his various optical researches, and especially for his recent re-determination of the velocity of propagation of light"64
1880William Huggins British"For his important researches in astronomical spectroscopy, and especially for his determination of the radial component of the proper motions of stars"65
1882William de Wiveleslie Abney British"For his Photographic Researches and his discovery of the method of photographing the less refrangible part of the spectrum, especially the infra-red region; also for his Researches on the absorption of various compound bodies in this part of the spectrum"66
1884Tobias Robertus Thalén Swedish"For his spectroscopic researches"67
1886Samuel Pierpont Langley American"For his researches on the spectrum by means of the Bolometer"68
1888Pietro Tacchini Italian"For important and long-continued investigations, which have largely advanced our knowledge of the physics of the sun"6970
1890Heinrich Hertz German"For his work in electro-magnetic radiation"71
1892Nils Christoffer Dunér Swedish"For his Spectroscopic Researches on Stars"72
1894James Dewar British"For his researches on the properties of matter at extremely low temperatures"7374
1896Philipp Lenard Hungarian"For their investigation of the phenomena produced outside a highly exhausted vacuum tube through which electrical discharge is taking place"757677
Wilhelm Röntgen German
1898Oliver Joseph Lodge British"For his researches in radiation and in the relations between matter and ether"78
1900Henri Becquerel French"For his discoveries in radiation proceeding from Uranium"79
1902Charles Algernon Parsons British"For his success in the application of the steam turbine to industrial purposes, and for its recent extension to navigation"8081
1904Ernest Rutherford New Zealander"For his researches on radio-activity, particularly for his discovery of the existence and properties of the gaseous emanations from radio-active bodies"828384
1906Hugh Longbourne Callendar British"For his experimental work on heat"85
1908Hendrik Lorentz Dutch"On the ground of his investigations in optical and electrical science"86
1910—Heinrich Rubens German"For his researches on radiation, especially of long wave-length"87
1912Heike Kamerlingh Onnes Dutch"For his researches at low temperatures"8889
1914John Strutt British"For his numerous researches in optics"90
1916William Henry Bragg British"For his researches in X-ray radiation"91
1918Charles Fabry French"For their contributions to optics"92
Alfred Perot
1920Robert Strutt British"For his researches into the properties of gases at high vacua"93
1922Pieter Zeeman Dutch"For his researches in optics"94
1924Charles Vernon Boys British"For his invention of the gas calorimeter"95
1926Arthur Schuster German British"For his services to physical science, especially in the subjects of optics and terrestrial magnetism"96
1928Friedrich Paschen German"For his contributions to the knowledge of spectra"97
1930Peter Debye Dutch"For his work relating to specific heats and X-ray spectroscopy"98
1932Fritz Haber German"For the outstanding importance of his work in physical chemistry, especially in the application of thermodynamics to chemical reactions"99100
1934Wander Johannes de Haas Dutch"For his researches on the properties of bodies at low temperatures, and in particular, for his recent work on cooling by the use of adiabatic demagnetisation"101
1936—Ernest George Coker British"For his researches on the use of polarized light for investigating directly the stresses in transparent models of engineering structures"102
1938Robert Wood American"In recognition of his distinguished work and discoveries in many branches of physical optics"103
1940Manne Siegbahn Swedish"For his pioneer work in high precision X-ray spectroscopy and its applications"104
1942—Gordon Dobson British"For his outstanding work on the physics of the upper air and its application to meteorology"105
1944Harry Ricardo British"In recognition of his important contributions to research on the internal combustion engine, which have greatly influenced the development of the various types"106
1946—Alfred Egerton British"For his leading part in the application of modern physical chemistry to many technological problems of pressing importance"107
1948Francis Simon British"For his outstanding contributions to the attainment of low temperatures and to the study of the properties of substances at temperatures near the absolute zero"108109
1950Frank Whittle British"For his pioneering contributions to the jet propulsion of aircraft"110
1952Frits Zernike Dutch"For his outstanding work in the development of phase-contrast microscopy"111112
1954—Cecil Reginald Burch British"For his distinguished contributions to the technique for the production of high vacua and to the development of the reflecting microscope"113114
1956—Frank Philip Bowden Australian"For his distinguished work on the nature of friction"115116
1958—Thomas Ralph Merton British"For his distinguished researches in spectroscopy and optics"117118
1960Alfred Gordon Gaydon British"For his distinguished work in the field of molecular spectroscopy and particularly its application to the study of flame phenomena"119
1962—Dudley Maurice Newitt British"For his distinguished contributions to chemical engineering"120121
1964Hendrik van de Hulst Dutch"For his distinguished work on the scattering processes in the interplanetary medium and his prediction of the 21 cm spectral line from interstellar neutral hydrogen"122
1966William Penney British"In recognition of his distinguished and paramount personal contribution to the establishment of economic nuclear energy in Great Britain"123124
1968Dennis Gabor Hungarian

British

"For his contributions to optics, especially by establishing the principles of holography"125126
1970—Christopher Hinton British"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to engineering and of his leadership of engineering design teams in the chemical and atomic energy industries and in electricity generation"127
1972—Basil John Mason British"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to meteorology, particularly the physics of clouds"128129
1974—Alan Cottrell British"In recognition of his contributions to physical metallurgy and particularly in extending knowledge of the role of dislocation in the fracture of metals"130
1976Ilya Prigogine Belgian"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to the theory of irreversible thermodynamics"131132
1978George Porter British"In recognition of his distinguished studies of very fast chemical reactions by flash photolysis"133134
1980—William Frank Vinen British"In recognition of his discovery of the quantum of circulation in superfluid helium and his development of new techniques for precise measurements within liquid helium"135136
1982—Charles Gorrie Wynne British"In recognition of his unique contribution to the design of optical instruments ranging from large telescopes to bubble-chamber optics"137
1984—Harold Hopkins British"In recognition of his many contributions to the theory and design of optical instruments, especially of a wide variety of important new medical instruments which have made a major contribution to clinical diagnosis and surgery"138
1986—Denis Rooke British"In recognition of his contributions to scientific developments in the gas industry"139140
1988—Felix Weinberg Czech British"In recognition of his pioneering work on optical diagnostics and electrical aspects of combustion and his fundamental studies of flame problems associated with jet engines and furnaces"141142
1990—Walter Eric Spear German"For discovering and applying techniques for depositing and characterising thin films of high quality amorphous silicon and for demonstrating that these can be doped to give useful electronic devices, such as cost-effective solar cells and large arrays of thin film transistors, now used in commercial, flat-panel, LCD colour TV screens"143144
1992—Harold Neville Vazeille Temperley British"In recognition of his wide-ranging and imaginative contributions to applied mathematics and statistical physics, especially in the physical properties of liquids and the development of the Temperley-Lieb algebra"145146
1994—Andrew Keller British"In recognition of his contributions to polymer science, in particular his elucidation of the basis of polymeric crystallization, a fundamental ingredient in many materials, to methods of making strong fibres and to the understanding of polymer solutions which underlie this technology"147
1996—Grenville Turner British"In recognition of his work on the 40Ar/39Ar method of dating developing this technique to a sophisticated level and one which is widely used for dating extraterrestrial and terrestrial rocks"148149
1998Richard Friend British"In recognition of his leading research in the development of polymer-based electronics and optoelectronics leading to a very rapid growth of development activities aimed at plastic electronic displays, with advantages of very low cost, flexibility, and the option of curved or flat surfaces"150151
2000—Wilson Sibbett British"In recognition of his research on ultra-short pulse laser science and technology."152153
2002David King South African British"For outstanding contributions to our fundamental understanding of the structure and dynamics of reaction processes on solid surfaces"154155
2004—Richard Dixon British"In recognition of his many contributions to molecular spectroscopy and to the dynamics of molecular photodissociation"156157
2006—Jean-Pierre Hansen Luxembourger"For his pioneering work on molten salts and dense plasmas that has led the way to a quantitative understanding of the structure and dynamics of strongly correlated ionic liquids"158159
2008—Edward Hinds British"For his extensive and highly innovative work in ultra-cold matter"160161
2010—Gilbert George Lonzarich British"For his outstanding work into novel types of quantum matter using innovative instrumentation and techniques"162
2012Roy Taylor British"For his outstanding contributions to tunable ultrafast lasers and nonlinear fibre optics, including fibre Raman, soliton and supercontinuum laser sources, which translated fundamental discoveries to practical technology"163164
2014Jeremy Baumberg British"For his outstanding creativity in nanophotonics, investigating many ingenious nanostructures, both artificial and natural to support novel plasmonic phenomena relevant to Raman spectroscopy, solar cell performance and meta-materials applications."165166
2016—Ortwin Hess German

British

"For his pioneering work in active nano-plasmonics and optical metamaterials with quantum gain."167168
2018—Ian Walmsley British"For pioneering work in the quantum control of light and matter on ultrashort timescales, especially the invention and application of new techniques for characterization of quantum and classical light fields."169170
2019Miles Padgett British"For world leading research on optical orbital momentum including an angular form of the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen"171172
2020Patrick Gill British"For his development of optical atomic clocks of exquisite precision, of ultra-stable lasers and of frequency standards for fundamental physics, quantum information processing, space science, satellite navigation and Earth observation."173174
2021Carlos Frenk Mexican

British

"For revealing via elaborate computer simulations, how small fluctuations in the early universe develop into today’s galaxies."175176
2022Raymond Pierrehumbert American"For his wide-ranging contributions to atmospheric physics, employing fundamental principles of physics to elucidate phenomena across the spectrum of planetary atmospheres."177178
2023Polina Bayvel British"For pioneering contributions to the fundamental physics and nonlinear optics, enabling the realisation of high capacity, broad bandwidth, multi-wavelength, optical communication systems that have underpinned the information technology revolution."179180
2024Tony Bell British"For his seminal contributions to theoretical developments of cosmic ray acceleration and origins."181182

See also

Notes

  • Media related to Rumford Medal at Wikimedia Commons

References

  1. Lange, Erwin F.; Buyers, Ray F. (August 1955). "Medals of the Royal Society of London". The Scientific Monthly. 81 (2). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 86. Bibcode:1955SciMo..81...85L. JSTOR 21857. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2024. https://www.jstor.org/stable/21857 ↩

  2. Simmonds, P. L. (9 July 1875). "Notes on medals and societies granting medals". The Journal of the Society of Arts. 23 (1181): 747. JSTOR 41335075. Retrieved 19 June 2024 – via Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=LLY-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA747 ↩

  3. "Rumford Medal". Royal Society. 30 November 2023. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 19 June 2024. https://royalsociety.org/medals-and-prizes/rumford-medal/ ↩

  4. Weld, Charles Richard (2011). A History of the Royal Society – With Memoirs of the Presidents. pp. 218–220. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511920479. ISBN 9780511920479. Retrieved 19 June 2024. 9780511920479 ↩

  5. Brown, Laurence A. (1980). British Historical Medals 1760–1960. Vol. 1. London: Seaby Publications Ltd. p. 98. ISBN 9780900652561. LCCN 82110340. OCLC 1152936062. OL 42979174M. Retrieved 29 June 2024. 9780900652561 ↩

  6. "Catalogue of the Medals in the Possession of The Royal Society". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 50 (302–307). Royal Society: 534. 31 December 1892. doi:10.1098/rspl.1891.0068. eISSN 2053-9126. JSTOR 115194. S2CID 186209910. https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1891.0068 ↩

  7. "The Royal Society Medals and Awards: Nomination guidance" (PDF). Royal Society. 2024. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 April 2024. Retrieved 19 June 2024. https://royalsociety.org/-/media/awards/guidance-documents/the-royal-society-medals-and-awards---guidance-document-2024.pdf ↩

  8. Lange, Erwin F.; Buyers, Ray F. (August 1955). "Medals of the Royal Society of London". The Scientific Monthly. 81 (2). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 86. Bibcode:1955SciMo..81...85L. JSTOR 21857. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2024. https://www.jstor.org/stable/21857 ↩

  9. Crosland, Maurice P. (2023) [2007]. Scientific Institutions and Practice in France and Britain, c.1700–c.1870 (1st ed.). London: Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 9781138375109. OCLC 1380361038. Retrieved 19 June 2024. 9781138375109 ↩

  10. This number includes three scientists of mixed background. They are Ortwin Hess (German/British), Dennis Gabor (Hungarian/British) and Carlos Frenk (Mexican/British). /wiki/Ortwin_Hess ↩

  11. This number includes Ortwin Hess, who is of mixed background (German/British). /wiki/Ortwin_Hess ↩

  12. This number includes Dennis Gabor, who is of mixed background (Hungarian/British). /wiki/Dennis_Gabor ↩

  13. "Professor Polina Bayvel honoured with Royal Society medal". University College London. 30 August 2023. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 8 June 2024. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/iccs/news/2023/aug/professor-polina-bayvel-honoured-royal-society-medal ↩

  14. Thompson received the medal in 1804.[10] ↩

  15. "Oxford DNB article: Thompson, Sir Benjamin (subscription needed)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/27255. Retrieved 27 January 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/27255?docPos=1 ↩

  16. "Front Matter" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 93: iii–iv. 31 December 1803. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 107065. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/cms/asset/07e7f62a-1f2e-497f-b581-e599ba8ef863/front.pdf ↩

  17. Craik, Alex D. D. (2020). "Geometry versus Analysis in Early 19th-Century Scotland – John Leslie, William Wallace, and Thomas Carlyle". Historia Mathematica. 27 (2): 137. doi:10.1006/hmat.1999.2264. eISSN 1090-249X. S2CID 119830189. https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhmat.1999.2264 ↩

  18. "Front Matter" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 95. Royal Society: iii–iv. 31 December 1805. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 107155. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/cms/asset/4412e870-b4dc-4586-8c17-1c0e075ff5f3/front.pdf ↩

  19. Hutchison, William Kenneth (30 April 1985). "The Royal Society and the foundation of the British Gas Industry". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 39 (2). Royal Society: 252. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1985.0012. JSTOR 531628. Archived from the original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rsnr.1985.0012 ↩

  20. O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (January 1997). "Étienne Louis Malus". MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 27 January 2009. /wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson ↩

  21. "Front Matter" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 101: iii–iv. 31 December 1811. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 107330. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/cms/asset/ffc7561f-9651-406f-b95f-959b5493652e/front.pdf ↩

  22. Moore, Norman (2004). "Oxford DNB article: Wells, William Charles (subscription needed)". In Bergin, Catherine (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/29020. Retrieved 27 January 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/29020 ↩

  23. Gould, Stephen Jay (1 July 1983). "Unorthodoxies in the First Formulation of Natural Selection". Evolution. 37 (4): 856–858. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1983.tb05608.x. JSTOR 2407927. PMID 28568132. Archived from the original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024. /wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould ↩

  24. "Oxford DNB article:Davy, Sir Humphry". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/7314. Retrieved 27 January 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/7314 ↩

  25. "Literary and Scientific Intelligence". Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. 1 (5). W. Blackwood: 523. August 1817. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 10 June 2024 – via Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=avKe-seO1T0C&pg=PA523 ↩

  26. "Sir David Brewster". The English Mechanic and World of Science. 6 (152): 480. 21 February 1868. OCLC 867727625. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024 – via Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=mEw-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA480 ↩

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  28. Fresnel was awarded the Rumford Medal for the year 1824 in 1827.[24] ↩

  29. O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (August 2002). "Augustin Jean Fresnel". MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2009. /wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson ↩

  30. "Front Matter" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 117: iii–iv. 31 December 1827. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 107858. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 10 June 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/cms/asset/7b70ed3f-4b63-45ec-b649-59c17e50dd5b/front.pdf ↩

  31. "Oxford DNB article:Daniell, John Frederic". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/7124. Retrieved 27 January 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/7124 ↩

  32. "Front Matter". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 123: iii–v. 31 December 1833. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 107981. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 10 June 2024 – via Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=KshofG09bW4C&pg=PP14 ↩

  33. At the time of the award, Melloni was living as a refugee in France for his role in the rebellion of 1831 in Parma.[29] /wiki/Revolutions_of_1830#In_Italy ↩

  34. Morselli, Mario (1984). Amedeo Avogadro, a Scientific Biography. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company. p. 327. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-6265-1. ISBN 978-94-009-6267-5. 978-94-009-6267-5 ↩

  35. Berti, Lucia (2018–19). Scientific Crosscurrents Between Italy and England – Italian contributions to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 17th–19th centuries (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Milan. p. 225. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2024. https://air.unimi.it/retrieve/handle/2434/730118/1458958/phd_unimi_R11554.pdf ↩

  36. Smart, R. N. (2004). "Oxford DNB article: Forbes, James David (subscription needed)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9832. Retrieved 27 January 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/9832 ↩

  37. "Front Matter" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 128: i–vi. 31 December 1838. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 108184. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/cms/asset/a13afa9a-c311-4de0-9b36-0248b9e14604/front.pdf ↩

  38. O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (May 2010). "Jean Baptiste Biot". MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2009. /wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson ↩

  39. "Front Matter". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 130: i–xii. 31 December 1840. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 108208. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 13 June 2024 – via Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=Zk9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR15 ↩

  40. "Oxford DNB article: Talbot, William Henry Fox". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/26946. Retrieved 9 February 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/26946 ↩

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