Trichloroethylene

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
The earliest record of trichloroethylene synthesis dates back to 1836. It was obtained from the action of <a href="/facts/Potassium_hydroxide/NBhPBuXc">potassium hydroxide</a> on <a href="/facts/1%2c1%2c2%2c2-Tetrachloroethane/cYu267Cu">1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane</a> and <a href="/facts/1%2c1%2c1%2c2-Tetrachloroethane/k8PLv9L8">1,1,1,2-tetrachloroethane</a> by <a href="/facts/Auguste_Laurent/s2xKkB0P">Auguste Laurent</a> and notated as C4HCl3 (then the atomic weight of carbon was thought to be half of what it really is). Laurent named it chlorétherise but did not investigate the compound further.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a>
Trichloroethylene's discovery is widely attributed to E. Fischer who made it in 1864 via the reduction of <a href="/facts/Hexachloroethane/0JhThRPR">hexachloroethane</a> with hydrogen. Fischer investigated trichloroethylene and noted its boiling point as between 87 and 90 degrees Celsius.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> Commercial production began in Germany, in 1920 and in the US in 1925.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
The use of trichloroethylene in the food and pharmaceutical industries has been banned in some parts of the world since the 1970s<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> due to concerns about its toxicity. Legislation has forced the replacement of trichloroethylene in many processes in Europe as the chemical was classified as a carcinogen carrying an R45 <a href="/facts/List_of_R-phrases/3uN9B9Wc">risk phrase</a>, May cause cancer. Many degreasing chemical alternatives are being promoted such as Ensolv and Leksol; however, each of these is based on <a href="/facts/N-Propyl_bromide/2VHzjVHJ">n-propyl bromide</a> which carries an R60 risk phrase of May impair fertility, and would not be a legally acceptable substitute.

<h3>Anaesthesia</h3>
Trichloroethylene is a good analgesic at 0.35 to 0.5% concentrations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> Trichloroethylene was used in the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia beginning in 1916.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> Early tradenames for trichloroethylene, especially for use as an analgesic for neuralgia were "Gemalgene", "Trethylene" and "Chlorylen".
Pioneered by <a href="/facts/Imperial_Chemical_Industries/XECoopCt">Imperial Chemical Industries</a> in Britain, under the trade name "Trilene" (from trichloroethylene), its development was hailed as an anesthetic revolution. It was mostly known as "Trimar" in the United States. The –mar suffix indicated study and development at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Maryland/Wmc5R1kM">University of Maryland</a>, e.g., "Fluoromar" for <a href="/facts/Fluroxene/xCnzF5Jn">fluroxene</a> and "Vinamar" for <a href="/facts/Ethyl_vinyl_ether/QvcAus3h">ethyl vinyl ether</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> From the 1940s through the 1980s, both in Europe and North America, trichloroethylene was used as a volatile anesthetic almost invariably administered with <a href="/facts/Nitrous_oxide/Jvys91lI">nitrous oxide</a>. Marketed in the UK by <a href="/facts/Imperial_Chemical_Industries/XECoopCt">Imperial Chemical Industries</a> under the trade name Trilene it was coloured blue (with a dye called <a href="/facts/Waxoline_blue/e6rJztYg">waxoline blue</a> in 1:200,000 concentration)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> to avoid confusion with the similar-smelling chloroform. Trilene was stabilised with 0.01% <a href="/facts/Thymol/S6u6qWcL">thymol</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> "Anamenth" was an early German anaesthetic trichloroethylene formulation which contained <a href="/facts/Menthol/Pdg9F3pS">menthol</a> as the stabiliser.

 
Originally thought to possess less <a href="/facts/Hepatotoxicity/xbLcKPNG">hepatotoxicity</a> than <a href="/facts/Chloroform/gvzuJMXa">chloroform</a>, and without the unpleasant pungency and flammability of <a href="/facts/Diethyl_ether/Ep20vEdj">ether</a>, TCE replaced earlier anesthetics <a href="/facts/Chloroform/gvzuJMXa">chloroform</a> and <a href="/facts/Diethyl_ether/Ep20vEdj">ether</a> in the 1940s. TCE use was nonetheless soon found to have several pitfalls. These included promotion of <a href="/facts/Cardiac_arrhythmias/ooEpr46Q">cardiac arrhythmias</a>, low volatility and high solubility preventing quick anesthetic induction, reactions with <a href="/facts/Soda_lime/gh7cblWS">soda lime</a> used in carbon dioxide absorbing systems, prolonged neurologic dysfunction when used with soda lime, and evidence of hepatotoxicity as had been found with chloroform. Alkali components of carbon dioxide absorbers reacted with trichloroethylene and released <a href="/facts/Dichloroacetylene/9CoxQ9vC">dichloroacetylene</a>, a neurotoxin.
The introduction of <a href="/facts/Halothane/PQ58E6ah">halothane</a> in 1956 greatly diminished the use of TCE as a general anesthetic in the 1960s, as halothane allowed much faster induction and recovery times and was considerably easier to administer. Trichloroethylene has also been used in the production of halothane.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>

 
 
 
Trilene was also used as an inhaled analgesic, mainly during childbirth, often self-applied by the patient. It was introduced for obstetrical anaesthesia in 1943, and used until the 1980s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> Its anaesthetic use was banned in the United States in 1977 but the anaesthetic use in the United Kingdom remained until the late 1980s (especially for childbirth).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> Fetal toxicity and concerns about the carcinogenic potential of TCE led to its abandonment in developed countries by the 1980s. TCE was used with halothane in the tri-service field anaesthetic apparatus used by the UK armed forces under field conditions. As of 2000, TCE was still in use as an anesthetic in Africa.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>[needs update]

<h2 id="production">Production</h2>
Today, most trichloroethylene is produced from <a href="/facts/Ethylene/QMNBYLYn">ethylene</a>. First, ethylene is chlorinated over a <a href="/facts/Iron(III)_chloride/a51pulq1">ferric chloride</a> catalyst to produce <a href="/facts/1%2c2-Dichloroethane/WfKddRda">1,2-dichloroethane</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>

CH2=CH2 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl
When heated to around 400 °C with additional chlorine, 1,2-dichloroethane is converted to trichloroethylene:

ClCH2CH2Cl + 2 Cl2 → ClCH=CCl2 + 3 HCl
This reaction can be catalyzed by a variety of substances. The most commonly used catalyst is a mixture of <a href="/facts/Potassium_chloride/RgT2MdPa">potassium chloride</a> and <a href="/facts/Aluminium_chloride/xrhvSxDr">aluminum chloride</a>. However, various forms of porous <a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">carbon</a> can also be used. This reaction produces <a href="/facts/Tetrachloroethylene/6cGlBNMG">tetrachloroethylene</a> as a byproduct and depending on the amount of chlorine fed to the reaction, tetrachloroethylene can even be the major product. Typically, trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene are collected together and then separated by <a href="/facts/Distillation/plDvUMxn">distillation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>
Prior to the early 1970s, however, most trichloroethylene was produced in a two-step process from <a href="/facts/Acetylene/yaDh6cmJ">acetylene</a>. First, acetylene was treated with chlorine using a <a href="/facts/Iron(III)_chloride/a51pulq1">ferric chloride</a> <a href="/facts/Catalyst/LPBS7TQC">catalyst</a> at 90 °C to produce <a href="/facts/1%2c1%2c2%2c2-Tetrachloroethane/cYu267Cu">1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane</a> according to the <a href="/facts/Chemical_equation/S6QsBnm9">chemical equation</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>

HC≡CH + 2 Cl2 → Cl2CHCHCl2
The 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane is then dehydrochlorinated to give trichloroethylene. This can be accomplished either with an aqueous solution of <a href="/facts/Calcium_hydroxide/Kz2KzRd8">calcium hydroxide</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>

2 Cl2CHCHCl2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2 ClCH=CCl2 + CaCl2 + 2 H2O
or in the vapor phase by heating it to 300–500 °C on a <a href="/facts/Barium_chloride/j04T6NR2">barium chloride</a> or <a href="/facts/Calcium_chloride/e1EwNPGF">calcium chloride</a> catalyst:

Cl2CHCHCl2 → ClCH=CCl2 + HCl
Common impurities in reagent and technical grade TCE are <a href="/facts/Methyl_chloroform/lL4G6CaC">methyl chloroform</a>, <a href="/facts/Carbon_tetrachloride/S2ekjT0E">carbon tetrachloride</a>, <a href="/facts/Ethylene_dichloride/WfKddRda">ethylene dichloride</a>, <a href="/facts/Tetrachloroethane/LK1N6e0B">tetrachloroethanes</a>, <a href="/facts/Benzene/Fguue7nr">benzene</a> and <a href="/facts/Phenol/ACJs5NIU">phenol</a>. However, these compounds are present in very small amounts and do not possess any risk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>

<h2 id="uses">Uses</h2>
Trichloroethylene is an effective <a href="/facts/Solvent/LoMPMz8S">solvent</a> for a variety of <a href="/facts/Organic_chemistry/djxhxaNg">organic</a> materials. It is mainly used for cleaning. Trichloroethylene is an active ingredient (solvent) in various <a href="/facts/Printing_ink/Y7Wj0YQS">printing ink</a>, <a href="/facts/Varnish/sK905uXj">varnish</a> and industrial <a href="/facts/Paint/Q176AsIG">paint</a> formulations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> Other uses include <a href="/facts/Dyeing/6I8w1TyN">dyeing</a> and finishing operations, adhesive formulations, <a href="/facts/Rubber/CbsjJxhY">rubber</a> processing, adhesives, <a href="/facts/Lacquers/83C6H1IW">lacquers</a>, and <a href="/facts/Paint_strippers/Qm9hw6zc">paint strippers</a>. It is applied before <a href="/facts/Plating/3tRPlr6x">plating</a>, <a href="/facts/Anodizing/06Njuj3v">anodizing</a>, and painting.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>
When trichloroethylene was first widely produced in the 1920s, its major use was to extract <a href="/facts/Vegetable_oil/70v8uQMH">vegetable oils</a> from plant materials such as <a href="/facts/Soy/koovP3CI">soy</a>, <a href="/facts/Coconut/RUYNhNo2">coconut</a>, and <a href="/facts/Palm_tree/5bN6Wwcr">palm</a>. Other uses in the food industry included <a href="/facts/Coffee/e8NFddo5">coffee</a> <a href="/facts/Decaffeination/NvBxbYaS">decaffeination</a> (removal of <a href="/facts/Caffeine/Hx6E2QC5">caffeine</a>) and the preparation of flavoring extracts from <a href="/facts/Hops/mBRf6xGx">hops</a> and <a href="/facts/Spice/mIMfxvm7">spices</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> TCE was used a <a href="/facts/Freezing_point/MY0w0h0k">freezing point</a> depressant in <a href="/facts/Carbon_tetrachloride/S2ekjT0E">carbon tetrachloride</a> fire extinguishers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>
Trichloroethylene is also a <a href="/facts/Chain_termination/SseaKPeV">chain terminator</a> for <a href="/facts/Polyvinyl_chloride/9VkegJvr">polyvinyl chloride</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> Chlorination gives <a href="/facts/Pentachloroethane/9noBCxB1">pentachloroethane</a>.

<h3>Cleaning solvent</h3>
Perhaps the greatest use of TCE is as a degreaser for metal parts. It has been widely used in degreasing and cleaning since the 1910s because of its low cost, low flammability, low toxicity, and high effectivity as a solvent. The demand for TCE as a degreaser began to decline in the 1950s in favor of the less toxic <a href="/facts/1%2c1%2c1-Trichloroethane/lL4G6CaC">1,1,1-trichloroethane</a>. However, 1,1,1-trichloroethane production has been phased out in most of the world under the terms of the <a href="/facts/Montreal_Protocol/Hmf70BQK">Montreal Protocol</a> due to its contribution to the <a href="/facts/Ozone_depletion/ssGWpcx3">ozone depletion</a>. As a result, trichloroethylene has experienced some resurgence in use as a degreaser.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a>
Trichloroethylene has been used as a <a href="/facts/Dry_cleaning/jIJkjnrE">dry cleaning</a> solvent, although mostly replaced by tetrachloroethylene, except for spot cleaning – for grease and oil stains – where it is still often used under various tradenames. It was found unfavourable for dry cleaning because it tended to dissolve acetate dyes, which tetrachloroethylene did not. Trichloroethylene is used to remove grease and <a href="/facts/Lanolin/VyKnaor3">lanolin</a> from <a href="/facts/Wool/AENKRTYl">wool</a> before <a href="/facts/Weaving/dESwh5UP">weaving</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> 
TCE has also been used in the United States to clean kerosene-fueled rocket engines (TCE was not used to clean hydrogen-fueled engines such as the <a href="/facts/Space_Shuttle_Main_Engine/vGkj6Vxm">Space Shuttle Main Engine</a>). During static firing, the RP-1 fuel would leave hydrocarbon deposits and vapors in the engine. These deposits had to be flushed from the engine to avoid the possibility of explosion during engine handling and future firing. TCE was used to flush the engine's fuel system immediately before and after each test firing. The flushing procedure involved pumping TCE through the engine's fuel system and letting the solvent overflow for a period ranging from several seconds to 30–35 minutes, depending upon the engine. For some engines, the engine's gas generator and <a href="/facts/Liquid_oxygen/qnI0KDTb">liquid oxygen</a> (LOX) dome were also flushed with TCE before test firing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> The <a href="/facts/F-1_rocket_engine/PueQckty">F-1 rocket engine</a> had its LOX dome, gas generator, and thrust chamber fuel jacket flushed with TCE during launch preparations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a>

<h3>Refrigerants</h3>
TCE is also used in the manufacture of a range of fluorocarbon refrigerants<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> such as <a href="/facts/1%2c1%2c1%2c2-tetrafluoroethane/hy99tyHU">1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane</a> more commonly known as HFC-134a.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>

CHCl=CCl2 + 4 HF → CF3CH2F + 3 HCl
TCE was also used in industrial refrigeration applications due to its high heat transfer capabilities and its low-temperature specification.

<h2 id="reactions">Reactions</h2>
Trichloroethylene reacts with alkalis to give <a href="/facts/Dichloroacetylene/9CoxQ9vC">dichloroacetylene</a> via <a href="/facts/Dehydrochlorination/Cx6JUTv0">dehydrochlorination</a>.
1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethylsulfenyl chloride, used in the production of <a href="/facts/Captafol/1y7lr5f6">captafol</a>, is obtained from trichloroethylene and <a href="/facts/Sulfur_dichloride/TTtzPjH4">sulfur dichloride</a>. 
The reaction of trichloroethylene with chloroform can yield different compounds depending on the catalyst used. If sodium hydroxide is used, chloroform is dehydrochlorinated to <a href="/facts/Dichlorocarbene/fPh0ee4n">dichlorocarbene</a> which adds to trichloroethylene, and <a href="/facts/Pentachlorocyclopropane/NrkFkFXt">pentachlorocyclopropane</a> is obtained. The reaction of trichloroethylene with chloroform under the catalyst aluminum chloride gives 1,1,1,2,3,3-Hexachloropropane.
The reaction of trichloroethylene with <a href="/facts/Carbon_tetrachloride/S2ekjT0E">carbon tetrachloride</a> under similar conditions gives 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-heptachloropropane.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>

<h2 id="safety">Safety</h2>
<h3>Chemical instability</h3>
Despite its widespread use as a metal <a href="/facts/Degreaser/wQBt1G3o">degreaser</a>, trichloroethylene itself is unstable in the presence of metal over prolonged exposure. As early as 1961 this phenomenon was recognized by the manufacturing industry when stabilizing additives were added to the commercial formulation. Since the reactive instability is accentuated by higher temperatures, the search for stabilizing additives was conducted by heating trichloroethylene to its boiling point under a <a href="/facts/Reflux_condenser/ITtBcchY">reflux condenser</a> and observing decomposition. Definitive documentation of <a href="/facts/1%2c4-dioxane/ILtQeBxC">1,4-dioxane</a> as a stabilizing agent for TCE is scant due to the lack of specificity in early patent literature describing TCE formulations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> <a href="/facts/Epichlorohydrin/pouNHADT">Epichlorohydrin</a>, <a href="/facts/Butylene_oxide/DpHbhh68">butylene oxide</a>, N-methyl<a href="/facts/Pyrrole/7c7AbyN8">pyrrole</a> and <a href="/facts/Ethyl_acetate/om0PFI7S">ethyl acetate</a> are common stabilisers for TCE, with epichlorohydrin being the most persistent and effective.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> Other chemical stabilizers include <a href="/facts/Ketone/BqQXpLo4">ketones</a> such as <a href="/facts/Methyl_ethyl_ketone/kMEw9hTq">methyl ethyl ketone</a>.

<h3>Physiological effects</h3>
When inhaled, trichloroethylene produces <a href="/facts/Central_nervous_system/k8I6To97">central nervous system</a> depression resulting in <a href="/facts/General_anesthesia/bv3Yzcz7">general anesthesia</a>. These effects may be mediated by trichloroethylene acting as a <a href="/facts/Positive_allosteric_modulator/Gg1It5Cj">positive allosteric modulator</a> of inhibitory <a href="/facts/GABAA_receptor/6G4rAGb3">GABAA</a> and <a href="/facts/Glycine_receptor/jwVgXdrJ">glycine receptors</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> Its high blood solubility results in a less desirable slower induction of anesthesia. At low concentrations, it is relatively non-irritating to the respiratory tract. Higher concentrations result in <a href="/facts/Tachypnea/G220HYhe">tachypnea</a>. Many types of cardiac <a href="/facts/Arrhythmias/ooEpr46Q">arrhythmias</a> can occur and are exacerbated by <a href="/facts/Epinephrine/k7vvMI7E">epinephrine</a> (adrenaline). It was noted in the 1940s that TCE reacted with carbon dioxide (CO2) absorbing systems (<a href="/facts/Soda_lime/gh7cblWS">soda lime</a>) to produce <a href="/facts/Dichloroacetylene/9CoxQ9vC">dichloroacetylene</a> by <a href="/facts/Dehydrochlorination/Cx6JUTv0">dehydrochlorination</a> and <a href="/facts/Phosgene/Adeazsck">phosgene</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> <a href="/facts/Cranial_nerve/8zAVI3Ua">Cranial nerve</a> dysfunction (especially the fifth cranial nerve) was common when TCE anesthesia was given using CO2 absorbing systems. Muscle relaxation with TCE anesthesia sufficient for surgery was poor. For these reasons as well as problems with <a href="/facts/Hepatotoxicity/xbLcKPNG">hepatotoxicity</a>, TCE lost popularity in North America and Europe to more potent anesthetics such as <a href="/facts/Halothane/PQ58E6ah">halothane</a> by the 1960s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>
The symptoms of acute non-medical exposure are similar to those of <a href="/facts/Alcohol_intoxication/Kk9hRcsK">alcohol intoxication</a>, beginning with headache, dizziness, and confusion and progressing with increasing exposure to unconsciousness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> Much of what is known about the chronic human health effects of trichloroethylene is based on occupational exposures. Besides the effects to the central nervous system, workplace exposure to trichloroethylene has been associated with toxic effects in the liver and kidney.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> A history of long-term exposure to high concentrations of trichloroethylene is a suspected environmental risk of <a href="/facts/Parkinson%2527s_disease/xpekKj6x">Parkinson's disease</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>

<h4>Metabolism</h4>
Trichloroethylene is metabolised to trichloroepoxyethane (TCE oxide) which rapidly isomerises to <a href="/facts/Trichloroacetaldehyde/McAbToK0">trichloroacetaldehyde</a> (chloral).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> Chloral hydrates to <a href="/facts/Chloral_hydrate/KhDz2HhD">chloral hydrate</a> in the body. Chloral hydrate is either reduced to <a href="/facts/2%2c2%2c2-trichloroethanol/xUbx0ft7">2,2,2-trichloroethanol</a> or oxidised to <a href="/facts/Trichloroacetic_acid/VaKTtkn8">trichloroacetic acid</a>. <a href="/facts/Monochloroacetic_acid/aNNF8203">Monochloroacetic acid</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> <a href="/facts/Dichloroacetic_acid/dtro1JSN">dichloroacetic acid</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> and <a href="/facts/Trichloromethane/gvzuJMXa">trichloromethane</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> were also detected as minor metabolites of TCE.

<h3>Exposure and regulations</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/List_of_trichloroethylene-related_incidents/0QN8JbEq">List of trichloroethylene-related incidents</a>
With a <a href="/facts/Specific_gravity/ySquGd2x">specific gravity</a> greater than 1 (denser than water), trichloroethylene can be present as a <a href="/facts/Dense_non-aqueous_phase_liquid/P1TqhvSB">dense non-aqueous phase liquid</a> (DNAPL) if sufficient quantities are spilt in the environment.
The first known report of TCE in groundwater was given in 1949 by two English public chemists who described two separate instances of well contamination by industrial releases of TCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> Based on available federal and state surveys, between 9% and 34% of the drinking water supply sources tested in the US may have some TCE contamination, though EPA has reported that most water supplies comply with the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 5 ppb.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a>
Generally, atmospheric levels of TCE are highest in areas of concentrated industry and population. Atmospheric levels tend to be lowest in rural and remote regions. Average TCE concentrations measured in air across the United States are generally between 0.01 ppb and 0.3 ppb, although mean levels as high as 3.4 ppb have been reported.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> TCE levels in the low parts per billion range have been measured in food; however, levels as high as 140 ppb were measured in a few samples of food.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> TCE levels above background[how?] have been found in homes undergoing <a href="/facts/Renovation/gYdJldPs">renovation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>

<h4>Existing regulations</h4>
State, federal, and international agencies classify trichloroethylene as a known or probable carcinogen for humans. In 2014, the <a href="/facts/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer/Pb8KPyTz">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a> updated its classification of trichloroethylene to <a href="/facts/IARC_group_1_Carcinogens/EY8MuDwQ">Group 1</a>, indicating that sufficient evidence exists that it can cause cancer of the kidney in humans as well as some evidence of cancer of the liver and <a href="/facts/Non-Hodgkin%2527s_lymphoma/KIFxt74F">non-Hodgkin's lymphoma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a>
In the <a href="/facts/European_Union/6GYcR8qM">European Union</a>, the <a href="/facts/Scientific_Committee_on_Occupational_Exposure_Limit_Values/8lsYqeoe">Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limit Values</a> (SCOEL) recommends an exposure limit for workers exposed to trichloroethylene of 10 ppm (54.7 mg/m3) for 8-hour <a href="/facts/Permissible_exposure_limit/IrQeETWy">TWA</a> and of 30 ppm (164.1 mg/m3) for <a href="/facts/Permissible_exposure_limit/IrQeETWy">STEL</a> (15 minutes).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a>
Existing EU legislation aimed at protection of workers against risks to their health (including Chemical Agents Directive 98/24/EC<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> and Carcinogens Directive 2004/37/EC<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>) currently do not impose binding minimum requirements for controlling risks to workers' health during the use phase or throughout the life cycle of trichloroethylene.
In 2023, the United States <a href="/facts/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency/ghI985SI">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) determined that trichloroethylene presents a risk of injury to human health in various uses, including during manufacturing, processing, mixing, <a href="/facts/Recycling/x9X7GAzz">recycling</a>, vapor degreasing, as a lubricant, adhesive, <a href="/facts/Sealant/WY22bcvE">sealant</a>, cleaning product, and spray. It is dangerous from both inhalation and <a href="/facts/Dermal/WAm7Fd6P">dermal</a> exposure and was most strongly associated with <a href="/facts/Immunosuppression/22GHUHkr">immunosuppressive</a> effects for acute exposure, as well as <a href="/facts/Autoimmunity/5cASmcfI">autoimmune</a> effects for chronic exposures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> Chronic exposure to trichloroethylene has also been linked to an increased risk of <a href="/facts/Parkinson%2527s_disease/xpekKj6x">Parkinson's disease</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> As of June 1, 2023, two U.S. states (<a href="/facts/Minnesota/ncgVuC4Q">Minnesota</a> and <a href="/facts/New_York_(state)/mnl67G1G">New York</a>) have acted on the EPA's findings and banned trichloroethylene in all cases but research and development.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> According to the US EPA, in October 2023 it "proposed to ban the manufacture (including import), processing, and distribution in commerce of TCE for all uses, with longer compliance time frames and workplace controls (including an exposure limit) for some processing and industrial and commercial uses until the prohibitions come into effect" to "protect everyone including bystanders from the harmful health effects of TCE".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> Following the EPA's recommendation the <a href="/facts/Biden_Administration/BnAbRfA6">Biden Administration</a> announced a proposal to ban trichloroethylene later that month.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> In December 2024 the EPA issued a final ruling on the regulation of trichloroethylene, with the rule taking effect on January 16, 2025.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> The rule bans the manufacture (including import), processing, and distribution in commerce of trichloroethylene for all uses, with longer compliance timeframes and stringent worker protections for some processing and industrial and commercial uses until the prohibitions come into effect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> The EPA is prohibiting most uses of trichloroethylene within one year of the rule taking effect including manufacture and processing for most commercial and all consumer products, with only a limited number of commercial uses being allowed after January 16, 2026.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> These uses will eventually be phased out as well, though an exact timeframe hasn't been determined yet, but until they have been phased out more stringent worker protections will be required with a lower <a href="/facts/Inhalation/eB5VlguF">inhalation</a> <a href="/facts/Occupational_exposure_limit/chpTx5og">exposure limit</a> for <a href="/facts/Particulates/RleGr5E6">airborne</a> trichloroethylene being put in place.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> Many of the trichloroethylene uses that are continuing for longer than one year occur in highly <a href="/facts/Industrialized/h3QXzS6C">industrialized</a> settings with critical uses such as the cleaning of parts used in <a href="/facts/Medical_devices/uzUHp474">medical devices</a>, aircraft & other transportation, <a href="/facts/Security_alarm/btzrpRr9">security</a> and <a href="/facts/U.S._critical_infrastructure_protection/NlXVW6yJ">defense systems</a> and the manufacture of <a href="/facts/Lead%25E2%2580%2593acid_battery/84b8hALA">battery</a> <a href="/facts/Separator_(electricity)/3zDAYcPN">separators</a> and <a href="/facts/Refrigerants/rI60t5zU">refrigerants</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> These uses will ultimately be prohibited as well but are temporarily being allowed to continue in order to avoid negative impacts to <a href="/facts/National_security/DlmpehRa">national security</a> or <a href="/facts/Critical_infrastructure/p0QG0R1h">critical infrastructure</a>, and to allow time to transition to alternative chemicals and methods.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>

<h2 id="remediation">Remediation</h2>
Recent research has focused on the in-place remediation of trichloroethylene in soil and groundwater using <a href="/facts/Potassium_permanganate/nyjjuDlo">potassium permanganate</a> instead of removal for off-site treatment and disposal. Naturally occurring <a href="/facts/Bacteria/wC8xSCsU">bacteria</a> have been identified with the ability to degrade TCE. <a href="/facts/Dehalococcoides/JQxyHCTJ">Dehalococcoides</a> sp. degrade trichloroethylene by reductive dechlorination under anaerobic conditions. Under aerobic conditions, <a href="/facts/Pseudomonas_fluorescens/l5V1Y47D">Pseudomonas fluorescens</a> can co-metabolize TCE. Soil and groundwater contamination by TCE has also been successfully remediated by chemical treatment and extraction. The bacteria <a href="/facts/Nitrosomonas_europaea/0GEP56fG">Nitrosomonas europaea</a> can degrade a variety of halogenated compounds including trichloroethylene.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> <a href="/facts/Toluene_dioxygenase/rqalW2Kp">Toluene dioxygenase</a> has been reported to be involved in TCE degradation by <a href="/facts/Pseudomonas_putida/AaRGu0KL">Pseudomonas putida</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> In some cases, <a href="/facts/Xanthobacter_autotrophicus/K8L5LVXu">Xanthobacter autotrophicus</a> can convert up to 51% of TCE to CO and CO2.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a>

<h2 id="society-and-culture">Society and culture</h2>
<a href="/facts/Groundwater_pollution/9tcqXv2B">Groundwater</a> and <a href="/facts/Drinking_water_pollution/PcEERmpX">drinking water</a> contamination from industrial discharge including trichloroethylene is a major concern for human health and has precipitated numerous incidents and lawsuits in the United States. 
The 1995 non-fiction book <a href="/facts/A_Civil_Action/A3amgcNU">A Civil Action</a> was written about a lawsuit (<a href="/facts/Anderson_v._Cryovac/HtV4yJp4">Anderson v. Cryovac</a>) following the increase in leukemia cases blamed on trichloroethylene pollution, although trichloroethylene is not known to cause leukemia in humans. It was <a href="/facts/A_Civil_Action_(film)/QnKWS0pz">adapted to cinema in 1998</a>.
TCE has been used as a <a href="/facts/Recreational_drug/eoBD3vKn">recreational drug</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> Common methods of trichloroethylene abuse include inhalation and drinking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> Most TCE abusers were young people and workers. The main reported reason for abuse is trichloroethylene's euphoriant and slight hallucinogenic effect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> Some workers had become addicted to TCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 1997. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605235058/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp19.html">Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene.</a></li>
<li>Doherty, Richard E. (2000). "A History of the Production and Use of Carbon Tetrachloride, Tetrachloroethylene, Trichloroethylene and 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in the United States: Part 2 – Trichloroethylene and 1,1,1-Trichloroethane". Environmental Forensics. 1 (2): 83–93. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000EnvFo...1...83D">2000EnvFo...1...83D</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fenfo.2000.0011">10.1006/enfo.2000.0011</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:97370778">97370778</a>.</li>
<li>Lipworth, Loren; Tarone, Robert E.; McLaughlin, Joseph K. (2006). "The Epidemiology of Renal Cell Carcinoma". The Journal of Urology. 176 (6): 2353–2358. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.juro.2006.07.130">10.1016/j.juro.2006.07.130</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17085101">17085101</a>.</li>
<li>Matei, Adrienne (7 Apr 2021). <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/apr/07/rates-of-parkinsons-disease-are-exploding-a-common-chemical-may-be-to-blame">"Rates of Parkinson's disease are exploding. A common chemical may be to blame"</a>. The Guardian.</li>
<li>US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2011. <a href="http://www.epa.gov/iris/supdocs/0199index.html">Toxicological Review for Trichloroethylene</a></li>
<li>US National Academy of Sciences (NAS). 2006. <a href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11707.html">Assessing Human Health Risks of Trichloroethylene – Key Scientific Issues.</a> Committee on Human Health Risks of Trichloroethylene, National Research Council.</li>
<li>US National Toxicology Program (NTP). 2021. <a href="https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/trichloroethylene.pdf">Trichloroethylene, in the 15th Annual Report of Carcinogens.</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Trichloroethene.

<ul><li><a href="http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=119268">US EPA: Trichloroethylene – TCE information website</a> – US <a href="/facts/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency/ghI985SI">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA)</li>
<li><a href="https://www.chlorinated-solvents.eu/">chlorinated-solvents.eu</a> – Sustainable uses and industry recommendations, <a href="/facts/European_Chlorinated_Solvents_Association/pPhnUDDT">European Chlorinated Solvents Association</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.html">Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Trichloroethylene Toxicity</a> – <a href="/facts/Agency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry/jVG5SPBA">Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry</a> (ATSDR), of the US <a href="/facts/Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services/eS90vYmd">Department of Health and Human Services</a> (public domain)</li>
<li><a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/11707/assessing-the-human-health-risks-of-trichloroethylene-key-scientific-issues">Assessing Human Health Risks of Trichloroethylene – Key Scientific Issues</a> – US <a href="/facts/National_Academy_of_Sciences/M3oePVeG">National Academy of Sciences</a> (NAS)</li>
<li><a href="https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/trichloroethylene.pdf">US NIH: Fifteenth Report on Carcinogens: Trichloroethylene Monograph</a> – US <a href="/facts/National_Institutes_of_Health/G3Eytfcc">National Institutes of Health</a> (NIH)</li>
<li><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/trichloroethylene/">Workplace Safety and Health Topics: Trichloroethylene – TCE</a> – US <a href="/facts/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health/5WjdDNMN">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH)</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0629". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0629.html" target="_blank">https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0629.html</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Trichloroethylene (TCE) on ATSDR <a href="https://wwwn.cdc.gov/tsp/substances/toxsubstance.aspx?toxid=30" target="_blank">https://wwwn.cdc.gov/tsp/substances/toxsubstance.aspx?toxid=30</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Essai sur l'Action du Chlore sur la Liqueur des Hollandais et sur quelques Ethers in Annales de Chimie, LXIII. (1836) page 379 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D1hOAAAAcAAJ&dq=%22essai%20sur%20l%27action%20du%20chlore%22&pg=PA379" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=D1hOAAAAcAAJ&dq=%22essai%20sur%20l%27action%20du%20chlore%22&pg=PA379</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">The so-called Perchloride of Formyl, Gmelin, L. (translated in 1855). Hand-book of Chemistry: Organic chemistry. UK: Cavendish Society. 
pages 200–201 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BYwMAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22chlorethose%22%20laurent&pg=PA200" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=BYwMAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22chlorethose%22%20laurent&pg=PA200</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Ueber die Einwirkung von Wasserstoff auf Einfach-Chlorkohlenstoff, Fischer, E. (1864) in Zeitschrift für Chemie. page 268 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hhhDAQAAMAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hhhDAQAAMAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Waters, E. M.; Gerstner, H. B.; Huff, J. E. (January 1977). "Trichloroethylene. I. An overview". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 2 (3): 671–707. Bibcode:1977JTEH....2..671W. doi:10.1080/15287397709529469. ISSN 0098-4108. PMID 403297. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15287397709529469" target="_blank">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15287397709529469</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Hardie DWF (1964). Chlorocarbons and chlorohydrocarbons. 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane. In: Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Kirk RE, Othmer DF, editors. New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 159–164 <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Mertens JA (1993). Chlorocarbons and chlorohydrocarbons. In: Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th Ed. Kroschwitz JI, Howe-Grant M, editors. New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 40–50. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">"Production, Import/Export, Use & Disposal of Trichloroethylene" (PDF). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 20 January 2025. <a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp19-c5.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp19-c5.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Textbook of Obstetric Anaesthesia. (2002). UK: Greenwich Medical Media. Pages 64-65 <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">"Chapter 4. Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Chlorinated Solvents. Environmental Forensics. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2013. pp. 119–159. doi:10.1039/9781849737265-00119. ISBN 978-1-84973-196-6. <a href="978-1-84973-196-6" target="_blank">978-1-84973-196-6</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">John C. Krantz, Jr (1962). A Portrait of Medical History and Current Medical Problems. The John D. Lucas Printing Company. p. 160. <a href="https://archive.org/details/portraitofmedica0000john" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/portraitofmedica0000john</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Current Researches in Anesthesia & Analgesia. (1951). USA: International Anesthesia Research Society. p.278 <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Current Researches in Anesthesia & Analgesia. (1951). USA: International Anesthesia Research Society. p.278 <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Suckling et al.,"PROCESS FOR THE PREPARATION OF 1,1,1-TRIFLUORO-2-BROMO-2-CHLOROETHANE", US patent 2921098, granted January 1960 , assigned to Imperial Chemical Industries
 <a href="http://www.google.com/patents?id=6JpaAAAAEBAJ" target="_blank">http://www.google.com/patents?id=6JpaAAAAEBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Textbook of Obstetric Anaesthesia. (2002). UK: Greenwich Medical Media. Pages 64-65 <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">"Chapter 4. Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Chlorinated Solvents. Environmental Forensics. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2013. pp. 119–159. doi:10.1039/9781849737265-00119. ISBN 978-1-84973-196-6. <a href="978-1-84973-196-6" target="_blank">978-1-84973-196-6</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">P. Fenton (2000). "Volatile Anaesthetic Agents". Archived from the original on 2012-01-07. Retrieved 2012-02-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120107011331/http://www.nda.ox.ac.uk/wfsa/html/u11/u1115_02.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120107011331/http://www.nda.ox.ac.uk/wfsa/html/u11/u1115_02.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Morrison, R. D., Murphy, B. L. (2013). Chlorinated Solvents: A Forensic Evaluation. UK Royal Society of Chemistry. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Morrison, R. D., Murphy, B. L. (2013). Chlorinated Solvents: A Forensic Evaluation. UK Royal Society of Chemistry. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Morrison, R. D., Murphy, B. L. (2013). Chlorinated Solvents: A Forensic Evaluation. UK Royal Society of Chemistry. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Morrison, R. D., Murphy, B. L. (2013). Chlorinated Solvents: A Forensic Evaluation. UK Royal Society of Chemistry. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">"Chapter 4. Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Chlorinated Solvents. Environmental Forensics. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2013. pp. 119–159. doi:10.1039/9781849737265-00119. ISBN 978-1-84973-196-6. <a href="978-1-84973-196-6" target="_blank">978-1-84973-196-6</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Subramanian, Indu (20 Nov 2023). "Is Most Parkinson's Disease Man-Made?". Medscape. Retrieved 29 Nov 2023. <a href="https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/997021" target="_blank">https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/997021</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">"Chapter 4. Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Chlorinated Solvents. Environmental Forensics. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2013. pp. 119–159. doi:10.1039/9781849737265-00119. ISBN 978-1-84973-196-6. <a href="978-1-84973-196-6" target="_blank">978-1-84973-196-6</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Caudle, W. Michael; Guillot, Thomas S.; Lazo, Carlos R.; Miller, Gary W. (2012). "Industrial toxicants and Parkinson's disease". NeuroToxicology. 33 (2). Elsevier BV: 178–188. Bibcode:2012NeuTx..33..178C. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2012.01.010. ISSN 0161-813X. PMC 3299826. PMID 22309908. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3299826" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3299826</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">"Chapter 4. Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Chlorinated Solvents. Environmental Forensics. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2013. pp. 119–159. doi:10.1039/9781849737265-00119. ISBN 978-1-84973-196-6. <a href="978-1-84973-196-6" target="_blank">978-1-84973-196-6</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">"Chapter 4. Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Chlorinated Solvents. Environmental Forensics. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2013. pp. 119–159. doi:10.1039/9781849737265-00119. ISBN 978-1-84973-196-6. <a href="978-1-84973-196-6" target="_blank">978-1-84973-196-6</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">"Chapter 4. Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Chlorinated Solvents. Environmental Forensics. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2013. pp. 119–159. doi:10.1039/9781849737265-00119. ISBN 978-1-84973-196-6. <a href="978-1-84973-196-6" target="_blank">978-1-84973-196-6</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">"Chapter 4. Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Chlorinated Solvents. Environmental Forensics. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2013. pp. 119–159. doi:10.1039/9781849737265-00119. ISBN 978-1-84973-196-6. <a href="978-1-84973-196-6" target="_blank">978-1-84973-196-6</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">"Chapter 4. Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Chlorinated Solvents. Environmental Forensics. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. 2013. pp. 119–159. doi:10.1039/9781849737265-00119. ISBN 978-1-84973-196-6. <a href="978-1-84973-196-6" target="_blank">978-1-84973-196-6</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:54">Lyne FA, McLachlan T (1949). "Contamination of water by trichloroethylene" p. 513 in Lilliman, B.; Houlihan, J. E.; Lyne, F. A.; McLachlan, T. (1949). "Notes". The Analyst. 74 (882): 510–513. Bibcode:1949Ana....74..510L. doi:10.1039/AN9497400510. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:62">Directive 2004/37/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens, mutagens or reprotoxic substances at work (Sixth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16(1) of Council Directive 89/391/EEC) (codified version) <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02004L0037-20240408" target="_blank">https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02004L0037-20240408</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:64">Dorsey, E. R.; Zafar, M.; Lettenberger, S. E.; Pawlik, M. E.; Kinel, D.; Frissen, M.; Schneider, R. B.; Kieburtz, K.; Tanner, C. M.; De Miranda, B. R.; Goldman, S. M.; Bloem, B. R. (14 March 2023). "Trichloroethylene: An Invisible Cause of Parkinson's Disease?". Journal of Parkinson's Disease. 13 (2). National Library of Medicine: 203–218. doi:10.3233/JPD-225047. PMC 10041423. PMID 36938742. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10041423" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10041423</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:66">"How Minnesota passed the country's first ban on trichloroethylene". www.pca.state.mn.us/news-and-stories. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. 28 August 2023. Archived from the original on 6 September 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023. <a href="https://www.pca.state.mn.us/news-and-stories/tce-ban-in-effect" target="_blank">https://www.pca.state.mn.us/news-and-stories/tce-ban-in-effect</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:68">"Risk Management for Trichloroethylene (TCE)". US EPA. 21 Nov 2023. Retrieved 23 Nov 2023. <a href="https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/risk-management-trichloroethylene-tce" target="_blank">https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/risk-management-trichloroethylene-tce</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">"Biden-Harris Administration Proposes Ban on Trichloroethylene to Protect Public from Toxic Chemical Known to Cause Serious Health Risks". EPA Press Office. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 23 October 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2025. <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-proposes-ban-trichloroethylene-protect-public-toxic" target="_blank">https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-proposes-ban-trichloroethylene-protect-public-toxic</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:79">Trichloroethylene in Neurology in Clinical Practice, Daroff, R. B., Fenichel, G. M., Jankovic, J., Mazziotta, J. C. (2012) <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mpnaPQd_fZsC&dq=%22Trichloroethylene%22+%22recreational%22&pg=PT6077" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=mpnaPQd_fZsC&dq=%22Trichloroethylene%22+%22recreational%22&pg=PT6077</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

Trichloroethylene open-in-new

Trichloroethylene