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<h2 id="identification">Identification</h2> <p><i>Parapercis colias</i> are <a href="/facts/Protogynous_hermaphrodites/bmLKYyg6">protogynous hermaphrodites</a>, which means they have both female and male reproductive organs at the beginning and some females change sex to males later in their life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> <i>P. colias</i> is a marine <a href="/facts/Benthic_zone/N3lM6P7I">bottom dwelling</a> fish that is found in coastal <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a> waters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Their colouring varies on age and sex.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Juveniles start off being generally pale in colour and have two long dark stripes along the sides which will turn brown and barely distinguishable when they become middle-sized fish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> As they mature with a body length over 25 cm, both sexes would have a blueish-grey <a href="/facts/Dorsum_(anatomy)/IpJ1fq2f">dorsal</a> with a white underside.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> Females have a tinge of orange and there is a trend for them to become green when they grow larger.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Brownish <a href="/facts/Pigment/I3clCYkF">pigments</a> can be found at the base of <a href="/facts/Pectoral_fin/kS10PMPf">pectoral fin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> On the other hand, adult males have distinctive blue-grey colour coat with greenish sides<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> and a golden brown line can be found above each eye.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Body length of <i>P. colias</i> is about 30–40 cm in general, but can up to 60 cm and their weight is 0.8–1.5 kg in general, but can up to 3 kg.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Males tend to be larger than females. They can live up to 32 years old.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Heads of <i>P. colias</i> are prominent and rounded with scales.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> They have a plump shaped body covered with firm scales.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Above their non expanded cheeks are two large lateral eyes<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> which can rotate independently, this allows them to see almost everywhere around them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> <i>P. colias</i> possess a terminal mouth<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> with bulbous lips.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Their <a href="/facts/Pelvic_fin/YgynRkfE">pelvic fins</a> are generally placed forward on the throat with brown dots appear underneath it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> There is a single horizontal stripe where ten to twelve scales above across their side of the body.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> The anterior section of their <a href="/facts/Dorsal_fin/zAPuxI1G">dorsal fin</a> is small and short,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> followed by fins with five short spines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> In contrast their second <a href="/facts/Dorsal_fin/zAPuxI1G">dorsal</a> is long.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> A <a href="/facts/Identification_key/fQ00o16w">key</a> used in an article of Cantwell can distinguish <i>P. colias</i> from other <a href="/facts/Parapercis/Pbak6mmE">parapercids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Key features are listed below:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>The outer row of lower jaw has eight teeth</li> <li><a href="/facts/Dorsum_(anatomy)/IpJ1fq2f">Dorsal</a> spines longer to the posterior (rear end)</li> <li>Soft <a href="/facts/Dorsal_fin/zAPuxI1G">dorsal fins</a> have 20 <a href="/facts/Ray-finned/3PNaXXmJ">rays</a> and <a href="/facts/Anal_fins/kS10PMPf">anal fins</a> with 17</li> <li>10 to 11 scales are present from lateral line to base of first soft <a href="/facts/Dorsum_(anatomy)/IpJ1fq2f">dorsal</a> <a href="/facts/Ray-finned/3PNaXXmJ">ray</a></li> <li>23 to 26 counts of <a href="/facts/Gill_raker/aJIws2wV">gill rakers</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Caudal_fin/kS10PMPf">Caudal (tail) fins</a> have 15 branched <a href="/facts/Ray-finned/3PNaXXmJ">rays</a> that looks rounded but bi-lobed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></li></ul> <p>Other characters of detailed <a href="/facts/Skeleton/FXc9Y2lF">skeleton</a> structures (osteology) of <i><a href="/facts/Parapercis/Pbak6mmE">Parapercis</a></i> species can be found in an article written by Gosline.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Swim_bladder/bEGmPNp8">Swimming bladder</a> is usually present in <a href="/facts/Osteichthyes/nXoXEj3a">osteichthyids</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> it helps the fish to stay at a certain water pressure level (depth) without spending more energy. <a href="/facts/Swim_bladder/bEGmPNp8">Swimming bladder</a> in <i>P. colias</i> are absent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> They will automatically sink to the sea floor if they stop swimming; therefore, they are called <a href="/facts/Benthic_zone/N3lM6P7I">bottom-dwelling</a> or sedentary bottom-hugging species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> Their body shape of having a flattened abdomen indicates this as well.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> Normally, <i>P. colias</i> use their <a href="/facts/Pectoral_fin/kS10PMPf">pectoral fin</a> to swim, their body muscles and tails fin are only involved in swimming when a sudden burst or speed is needed, this type of swimming character is called <a href="/facts/Labriform_locomotion/DMML2k4A">labriform</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> As a result, their <a href="/facts/Pelvic_fin/YgynRkfE">pelvic fins</a>, used as props when they are resting on the seabed,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> are reduced and thicken.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> Due to their nature of being <a href="/facts/Benthic_zone/N3lM6P7I">bottom-dwelling</a> species, sand can clog their gills when they are resting.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> To remedy this, <i>P. colias</i> often hold their breath and open their mouths for a long interval like having a yawn to take good gulps of air every now and then.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> Speaking of having a yawn, if you look closely you will notice that <i>P. colias</i> do not have <a href="/facts/Palatine_bone/H8VBCeA1">palatine teeth</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> and only have small teeth; however, you would not want to feel their sharp and well developed <a href="/facts/Pharyngeal_teeth/PhghwJy9">pharyngeal teeth</a> near their throat like their prey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> </p><p>There are some other detailed morphological characteristics inside the body of <i>P. colias</i> that determine their taxonomy, such as the presence of a lentiform body (an <a href="/facts/Eye/h3lbYU55">ocular</a> <a href="/facts/Blood_vessel/FG3GjPNW">vascular</a> structure) and others, are mentioned by Eastman.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="distribution">Distribution</h2> <h3>Natural global range</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Pinguipedid/CGp2xDVj">Pinguipedid</a> fishes (<a href="/facts/Sandperch/CGp2xDVj">Sandperches</a>) are widely found in the <a href="/facts/Southern_Atlantic_Ocean/EI4uChIb">southern Atlantic</a> and <a href="/facts/Indo-Pacific/pVfP1gxV">Indo-Pacific</a> regions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> However, <i>P. colias</i> is <a href="/facts/Endemic/xt4IpIsl">endemic</a> to <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> </p> <h3>New Zealand range</h3> <p><i>P. colias</i> is found from the shore to the shelf edge around New Zealand's entire coastline, but there are no records in either the <a href="/facts/Kermadec_Islands/QlcaK443">Kermadec Islands</a> or the <a href="/facts/Snares_Islands_%2f_Tini_Heke/JpxqXSL2">Snares Islands / Tini Heke</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> They are more abundant from south of <a href="/facts/Cook_Strait/yaRkmoLI">Cook Strait</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> and they are an iconic species for the <a href="/facts/South_Island_New_Zealand/asD6NsNx">South Island</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> They are most common around <a href="/facts/Southland%2c_New_Zealand/QcxdTwev">Southland</a> and the <a href="/facts/Chatham_Islands/rrjd670d">Chatham Islands</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="habitat-preferences">Habitat preferences</h2> <p><i>P. colias</i> can be found at 150 m in depth<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> occupying bedrock outcrops on gravel<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> or sandy seabed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> These habitats with <a href="/facts/Macroalgae/thLwLBk8">macro algae</a> or <a href="/facts/Sponges/E9T2WFWA">Sponges</a> are even more preferred.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> Furthermore, their abundance in each habitat varies between age.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> Juvenile are found more frequently in sponge gardens (more than 16m deep) dominated by orange finger sponges (<i>Raspalia topsenti</i> & <i>Raspalia flaccida</i>), large black massive sponge (<i><a href="/facts/Ancorina/Ho2VGaIY">Ancorina</a> alata</i>) and the small bright yellow clumps of <i><a href="/facts/Polymastia_(sponge)/CEfbD8aP">Polymastia</a> granulosa</i> that provide more shelters and safer refuges, whereas adults are mainly found on reef margins<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> and deeper areas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> </p><p>Since <i>P. colias</i> are <a href="/facts/Generalist_and_specialist_species/HBajVhNJ">generalists</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> which means that they prey on various species instead of depending on only one species, habitats that are rich in <a href="/facts/Biodiversity/GruakEzs">diversity</a> of species are also favoured by them. An example of this is the <a href="/facts/Kelp_forest/gQH0vcFF">kelp forest</a> which is often established on rock beds where it is also desirable for <i>P. colias</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> However, they can be also found in less species diverse habitats such as barren rock flats (4-12m deep) that are dominated by <a href="/facts/Sea_urchin/RQrB6XTH">sea urchins</a> grazing on <a href="/facts/Algae/U1ftVKU3">algae</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> </p><p>As mentioned before, <i>P. colias</i> can be found at 150 m in depth and was reported to be caught at 350m below the surface,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> other important aspects such as temperature, <a href="/facts/Salinity/X6mB1YAM">salinity</a> and oxygen content in the ocean are often influenced by water depth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> 766 samples were taken to determine the water temperature and chemistry ranges of <i>P. colias</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> as listed below: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th scope="col"></th><th scope="col"></th><th scope="col"></th></tr><tr><td>Temperature:</td><td>7.786 - 18.158</td><td>(°C)</td></tr><tr><td>Nitrate:</td><td>0.205 - 18.689</td><td>(μmol/L)</td></tr><tr><td>Salinity:</td><td>34.283 - 35.544</td><td>(PPS)</td></tr><tr><td>Oxygen:</td><td>5.121 - 6.587</td><td>(mL/L)</td></tr><tr><td>Phosphate:</td><td>0.258 - 1.333</td><td>(μmol/L)</td></tr><tr><td>Silicate:</td><td>1.911 - 7.690</td><td>(μmol/L)</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="life-cyclephenology">Life cycle/phenology</h2> <h3>Spawning and Hatching</h3> <p>Multiple <a href="/facts/Spawn_(biology)/nYF12vfX">spawning</a> events of a female <i>P. colias</i> occur throughout late winter and spring<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> in the centre to the outer <a href="/facts/Continental_shelf/dpgHAR4U">continental shelf</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> Instead of a distinct <a href="/facts/Spawn_(biology)/nYF12vfX">spawning</a> episode, their <a href="/facts/Spawn_(biology)/nYF12vfX">spawning</a> is a continuous event that the eggs are released over time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> One male can be <a href="/facts/Spawn_(biology)/nYF12vfX">spawning</a> with different groups of female.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> Eggs could possibly drift 74 km away from the <a href="/facts/Spawn_(biology)/nYF12vfX">spawning</a> site and hatch potentially after 116 hours.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> Young fish are found below 20 metres<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> then move to shallow water in summer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> </p> <h3>Age, Growth, Sex and Maturity</h3> <p>Growth of <i>P. colias</i> is measured by the relationship between age and their body length.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> <i>P. colias</i> are <a href="/facts/Protogynous_hermaphrodites/bmLKYyg6">protogynous hermaphrodites</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> when the length of <i>P. colias</i> reaches 410mm, 50% of the females are transitional.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> Sex inversion occurs with the colour change from whitish with a brown band at both sides or an orange tinge to bluish colour with a blue green band.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> Though sex inversion found to occur across a wide range of age and size, the cause of activating the sex inversion has not been well understood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> Studies have shown that the proportion of sex change decreases afterwards<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> as the presence of males in the <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">population</a> would discourage sex change.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> Hence, it is regarded as a response to the <a href="/facts/Demography/VktYwWUD">demographic</a> structure in the <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">population</a> instead of a response to their size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> Another study indicated that blue cod is most <a href="/facts/Fecundity/e0oMColj">fecund</a> at the size which closes to the average size of the first maturity of males. It has been regarded as a sign of potential sex change by reducing egg production for saving the resource.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> Sex change is also not well described that the transitional <a href="/facts/Gonads/36BUam2x">gonads</a> has different definitions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> </p><p>Their growth rate can differ due to food supply, water temperature and habitat as other fish do.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> Sex can also influence the growth rate. Male grow faster and larger than female.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a> <i>P. colias</i> have the potential to grow up to 50 cm in length and weight 4 kg.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> Growth ring interpretation shows that they can live about 10 to 15 years,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> but a study showed that the known maximum age of blue cod is 23 years old.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Sexual_maturity/VL3SueFf">Maturity</a> values are derived from the length of the fish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a> Their growth rate varies between locations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a> For example, male can reach maturity when their length reached 10–19 cm (which is about 2–3 years old) in Northland, but in Southland the male needs to reach 26–28 cm (which is about 4–6 years old).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> Besides, males generally have a faster growth rate compared to females.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a> Both female and male <i>P. colias</i> are assumed to reach sexual maturity with the measuring of 28 cm.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a> The maximum <a href="/facts/Life_expectancy/uPc8bWWW">lifespan</a> of <i>P. colias</i> is 32 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a> </p> <h3>Behaviours</h3> <p>Similar to other <i><a href="/facts/Parapercis/Pbak6mmE">Parapercis</a></i> species, male <i>P. colias</i> hold <a href="/facts/Territory_(animal)/T15S7XeD">territories</a> and their <a href="/facts/Home_range/X6KwWmIJ">home range</a> increases as the individual grows.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a> Mutch found that they tend to hold large territories rather than but loose territories with small social groups that contain three to five females.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a> Though they hold stable <a href="/facts/Territory_(animal)/T15S7XeD">territories</a>, <i>P. colias</i> moves from time to time. In a study,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a> <i>P. colias</i> can move with on average of 2.09±2.12 km, this could potentially be <a href="/facts/Home_range/X6KwWmIJ">home range</a> shifts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a> It is reported<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a> that <i>P. colias</i> emigrate from coastal to offshore waters in May of each year, this is thought to be a preparation for mating and <a href="/facts/Spawn_(biology)/nYF12vfX">spawning</a> in early winter. </p><p><a href="/facts/Thunder/maTSnAY5">Thunder</a> is known to agitate the fish. Reports since the 1950s have documented thunder activating blue cod's flight mechanisms, causing the fish to leap out of aquariums.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a> </p> <h3>Migration</h3> <p><i>P. colias</i> seem to be migratory at certain times in a year,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a> but little is known about their <a href="/facts/Migration_(ecology)/J3LuRgjq">migration</a>. Other studies indicated that they are relatively sedentary,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a> however, long-term <a href="/facts/Biological_dispersal/aju7c9ku">dispersal</a> has been suggested due to a record that one individual travelled 156 km over 20 months.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="diet-and-foraging">Diet and foraging</h2> <p>Many fish species are <a href="/facts/Generalist_and_specialist_species/HBajVhNJ">generalists</a>; thus, they are not limited by the <a href="/facts/Lotka%25E2%2580%2593Volterra_equations/zH2Eyz62">predator-prey cycle</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136"><sup>136</sup></a> <i>P. colias</i> is one of them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137"><sup>137</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138"><sup>138</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139"><sup>139</sup></a> They have been recorded to have 52 <a href="/facts/Taxa/caQC1e87">taxa</a> in their diet,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140"><sup>140</sup></a> where adults are found to be more selective than juveniles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141"><sup>141</sup></a> It makes sense that when <i>P. colias</i> grows bigger, the variety of species in their diet also increases, this includes <a href="/facts/Polychaetes/Uo2YIINM">polychaetes</a>, <a href="/facts/Crustaceans/PBobIVJP">crustaceans</a>, <a href="/facts/Molluscs/1elgknsQ">molluscs</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142"><sup>142</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143"><sup>143</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144"><sup>144</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145"><sup>145</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146"><sup>146</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Fish/fln4gH9V">Pisces</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147"><sup>147</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148"><sup>148</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Algae/U1ftVKU3">algae</a> and even its own spawn!<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149"><sup>149</sup></a> This means that <i>P. colias</i> are <a href="/facts/Omnivores/b8zcsuJF">omnivores</a> which "feeds on more one <a href="/facts/Trophic_level/tHMpgkUC">trophic level</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150"><sup>150</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151"><sup>151</sup></a> In short, you can say that they consume anything that is abundant and available locally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152"><sup>152</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153"><sup>153</sup></a> Other than the development of the fish itself, what they consume differs from region to region<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154"><sup>154</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155"><sup>155</sup></a> and whether the area is fished or not plays an important role as well.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156"><sup>156</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157"><sup>157</sup></a> One study<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158"><sup>158</sup></a> showed that oyster dredged habitat can reduce their prey diversity and have a negative effect on fish size. They usually stalk, seize and swallow their prey.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159"><sup>159</sup></a> After being caught, they tend to regurgitate the stomach contents.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160"><sup>160</sup></a> </p><p>"Our Big Blue Backyard" is a documentary of <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a> marine and shoreline species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161"><sup>161</sup></a> In the <a href="/facts/Chatham_Islands/rrjd670d">Chatham Islands</a> episode, blue cod (<i>P. colias</i>) waits to feed on <a href="/facts/P%25C4%2581ua/IIeqxN7R">pāua</a>, an <a href="/facts/Endemism/xt4IpIsl">endemic</a> <a href="/facts/Sea_snail/p6GReFBF">sea-snail</a> that attaches itself on hard surfaces such as rocks, at its most vulnerable phases – when they move or are grasped up by a <a href="/facts/Starfish/6JWBux0o">starfish</a> using hundreds of <a href="/facts/Tube_feet/TrUJbdLo">tube feet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162"><sup>162</sup></a> They are also said to be voracious.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163"><sup>163</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164"><sup>164</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="predators-parasites-and-diseases">Predators, parasites, and diseases</h2> <h3>Predators</h3> <p><i><a href="/facts/Homo_sapiens/rlcTENsr">Homo sapiens</a></i> (humans) fish 2000 to 2500 tons of <i>P. colias</i> annually.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165"><sup>165</sup></a> Natural predators include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Great_white_shark/9uLc7Adh">Great white shark</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166"><sup>166</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Benthic_zone/N3lM6P7I">Benthic</a> feeders, such as: <ul><li><a href="/facts/Yellow-eyed_penguin/mnPUT6P0">Yellow-eyed penguins</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167"><sup>167</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168"><sup>168</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169"><sup>169</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Dolphins/NUxUP7Ph">Dolphins</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170"><sup>170</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sea_birds/zmMQPeEU">Sea birds</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Mollymawk/0Q09dKPo">mollymawks</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171"><sup>171</sup></a></li></ul> <p>As many marine predators are <a href="/facts/Generalist_and_specialist_species/HBajVhNJ">generalists</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172"><sup>172</sup></a> there are many other potential predators not listed. <i>P. colias</i> are known to predate upon juveniles of their own species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173"><sup>173</sup></a> </p> <h3>Parasites</h3> <p>Hewitt and Hine<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174"><sup>174</sup></a> summarised the parasites found on blue cod including species in five main groups: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Group</th><th>Species</th><th>Location on host</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Protozoa/JczTf25H">Protozoa</a></td><td><ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Trypanosoma/8FQEE2VL">Trypanosoma</a> parapercis</i></li></ul></td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Blood/03zEulkj">Blood</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Digenea/3zefmUx3">Digenea</a></td><td><ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Apocreadiidae/MheAh5xy">Pancreadium</a> otagoensis</i></li><li><i><a href="/facts/Opecoelidae/6ez2WSGI">Plagioporus</a>(<a href="/facts/Caudotestis/6cHSUCjr">Caudotestis</a>) pachysomus</i></li><li><i><a href="/facts/List_of_diseases_and_parasites_in_cod/89DMRrVQ">Steringotrema</a> rotundum</i></li><li><i>Lecitocladium excisum</i></li><li><i><a href="/facts/List_of_diseases_and_parasites_in_cod/89DMRrVQ">Gonocerca</a> phyddis</i></li></ul></td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Gastrointestinal_tract/nK2zwqBS">Intestine</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Gastrointestinal_tract/nK2zwqBS">Intestine</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Gallbladder/RPdkQzQM">Gall bladder</a> and <a href="/facts/Stomach/Q4PPDGT6">stomach</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Stomach/Q4PPDGT6">Stomach</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Stomach/Q4PPDGT6">Stomach</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Monogenea/NtF6bKsp">Monogenea</a></td><td><ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Microcotyle/WSlfYQ7a">Microcotyle</a> constricta</i></li></ul></td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Gill/FWgM3Jp8">Gills</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Nematode/yLMJ43Eu">Nematoda</a></td><td><ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Anisakis/P7yD3xtd">Anisakis</a></i> sp. larva</li><li>Contracaecum <i>(Thynnascaris)</i> sp. larva</li></ul></td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Viscera/FUYsLaxz">Viscera</a>, <a href="/facts/Mesentery_(zoology)/7Ac2v224">mesenteries</a> and under <a href="/facts/Peritoneum/BotJhUr0">peritoneum</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Stomach/Q4PPDGT6">Stomach</a>, <a href="/facts/Gastrointestinal_tract/nK2zwqBS">intestine</a> and body cavity</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Copepod/TkVLaj0c">Copepoda</a></td><td><ul><li><i>Aethon percis</i></li><li><i><a href="/facts/Caligus/A09mze5X">Caligus</a> buechlerae</i></li></ul></td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Gill/FWgM3Jp8">Gills</a></li><li><a href="/facts/Skin/4havlLzG">Skin</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Blood sucking <a href="/facts/Sea_louse/21MyMr2Y">sea lice</a> are also known to parasitise <i>P. colias</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175"><sup>175</sup></a> </p> <h3>Disease and Injuries</h3> <p>No specific <a href="/facts/Disease/55eeQlGL">disease</a> is found on <i>P. colias</i>, but some <a href="/facts/Injury/PJ7CbnMQ">injuries</a> have been recorded. Hooking injuries could cause tissue damage and possibly lead to <a href="/facts/Death/VJmq29qm">mortality</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176"><sup>176</sup></a> Despite having greater risk for <a href="/facts/Parasitism/HWPcgky7">parasitic</a>, <a href="/facts/Bacteria/wC8xSCsU">bacterial</a>, or <a href="/facts/Fungus/BHo5DP59">fungal</a> infections, mortality after having a hook injury is often caused by blood loss rather than disease.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177"><sup>177</sup></a> An article suggests that small hooks cause more blood loss problems than big hooks to <i>P. colias</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178"><sup>178</sup></a> </p><p>Compared to other <a href="/facts/Osteichthyes/nXoXEj3a">bony fish</a>, <a href="/facts/Swim_bladder/bEGmPNp8">swimming bladder</a> in <i>P. colias</i> is absent,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179"><sup>179</sup></a> this means that they do not suffer from <a href="/facts/Barotrauma/saazRfqt">barotrauma</a> – an injury due expansion or eruption of the <a href="/facts/Swim_bladder/bEGmPNp8">swimming bladder</a> in fish, it is often caused by rapid water pressure change when rising from deep water to water surface.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180"><sup>180</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="in-a-human-context">In a human context</h2> <p>Rāwaru was a valued traditional food for <a href="/facts/M%25C4%2581ori_people/cvfbQmp8">Māori</a> who lived in the <a href="/facts/South_Island/asD6NsNx">South Island</a>, where the fish is more abundant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181"><sup>181</sup></a> Heads of rāwaru (<i>P. colias</i>, blue cod) were often given back to the sea as offerings to the god <a href="/facts/Tangaroa/tPuXJEjG">Maru</a> before Māori return from fishing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182"><sup>182</sup></a> </p><p>The fish was an important species to early European settlers in New Zealand as a food source, and by the 1910s became even more popular in <a href="/facts/Australia/qLHpbppq">Australia</a>, leading to the growth of the blue cod fishing industry in <a href="/facts/Southland_Region/QcxdTwev">Southland</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183"><sup>183</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history-of-the-name">History of the name</h2> <p>Blue cod (<i>P. colias</i>) is not a <a href="/facts/Cod/khIBy59d">cod</a>. The use of blue cod can date back to the time of <a href="/facts/James_Cook/wy3cXCXp">Captain Cook</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184"><sup>184</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185"><sup>185</sup></a> Some early writers listed them as <a href="/facts/Pollock/hp7bAuQD">coal-fish</a> which derived from unrelated European fish. However, this name is so widely used in <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a> that it is unlikely to be changed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186"><sup>186</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="economic-and-population-management-issue">Economic and population management issue</h2> <p>Blue cod is well known by the public due to its commercial and recreational importance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187"><sup>187</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188"><sup>188</sup></a> As mentioned before, we fish 2000 to 2500 tones of <i>P. colias</i> per year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189"><sup>189</sup></a> The value of <i>P. colias</i> as being the third popular recreational fishing species cannot be ignored,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190"><sup>190</sup></a> this includes using their flesh as rock lobster bait.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191"><sup>191</sup></a> It is estimated that the marginal willingness to pay for an additional <i>P. colias</i> is $1.61 per fish and the average willingness to pay is $24.46 per fish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192"><sup>192</sup></a> It is estimated that in 1999, 1.2 million <i>P. colias</i> was harvested, of which 70% were from the <a href="/facts/South_Island/asD6NsNx">South Island</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193"><sup>193</sup></a> Thus, <a href="/facts/Ministry_for_Primary_Industries_(New_Zealand)/y3rYgycY">Ministry for Primary Industries (New Zealand)</a> has set minimum capture length and maximum capture limit of <i>P. colias</i>, which varies between areas mainly depending on abundance, to avoid <a href="/facts/Natural_resource/w9WXxMx3">depletion</a>. For example, in the South-East area (of <a href="/facts/South_Island/asD6NsNx">South Island</a> from <a href="/facts/Clarence_Point/kvB444hp">Clarence Point</a> to <a href="/facts/Southland%2c_New_Zealand/QcxdTwev">Southland</a> and extended to the <a href="/facts/Chatham_Islands/rrjd670d">Chatham Islands</a>, <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a>), no fish shorter than 30 cm can be taken and each fisher has a limit up to 30 fish per day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194"><sup>194</sup></a> </p><p>To achieve <a href="/facts/Sustainable_fishery/RmlY9rbd">sustainable fishing</a>, it is crucial to persist healthy <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">population</a> structure with continuous monitoring and quotas set to date.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195"><sup>195</sup></a> However, as the largest fish in the <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">population</a> would be the male, males are often being caught and is thought to affect the females changing their sex earlier.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196"><sup>196</sup></a> This is an emerging issue to all hermaphrodites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197"><sup>197</sup></a> Surprisingly, the sex ratio male to females of <i>P. colias</i> is about 5:1<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198"><sup>198</sup></a> which is biologically implausible. This suggests that sex changes might not purely depend on fish length, but we cannot ignore the fact that fishery has changed the natural population composition of "P. colias". To understand the direct impact on P. colias despite population decline<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199"><sup>199</sup></a> further research is required. </p><p>In addition, the fundamental unit of concern of its management of <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">population</a> is the <a href="/facts/Genetics/bu8wne0A">genetic</a> structure that can lead to the reduction of the evolutionary potential for responding to <a href="/facts/Environmental_change/ybh0TTR5">environmental change</a>, the increase of <a href="/facts/Inbreeding/KRoRX08G">inbreeding</a> risk and the force of selective <a href="/facts/Genetics/bu8wne0A">genetic</a> change.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200"><sup>200</sup></a> Since a number of evidence indicated that blue cod are relatively sedentary,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201"><sup>201</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202"><sup>202</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203"><sup>203</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204"><sup>204</sup></a> the <a href="/facts/Overfishing/fAxN80Jo">fishing pressure</a> may lead to potential local <a href="/facts/Natural_resource/w9WXxMx3">depletion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205"><sup>205</sup></a> Recent studies showed that the <a href="/facts/Genetics/bu8wne0A">genetic</a> differences were significant between mainland <a href="/facts/List_of_islands_of_New_Zealand/0XmP60Q8">List of islands of New Zealand</a> <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">population</a> and <a href="/facts/Chatham_Island/FHmyTIbE">Chatham Island</a> <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">population</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206"><sup>206</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207"><sup>207</sup></a> On the other hand, the differences within mainland<a href="/facts/List_of_islands_of_New_Zealand/0XmP60Q8">List of islands of New Zealand</a> <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">populations</a> were limited while the pattern of the isolation by distance was detected.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208"><sup>208</sup></a> Further research using <a href="/facts/Microsatellite/SwfHbeXG">microsatellite</a> <a href="/facts/Genetic_marker/pRshdIBz">DNA markers</a> suggested that some significant <a href="/facts/Genetics/bu8wne0A">genetic</a> differences between <a href="/facts/List_of_islands_of_New_Zealand/0XmP60Q8">mainland</a> <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">population</a> exist which indicate the potential long-distance <a href="/facts/Biological_dispersal/aju7c9ku">dispersal</a>, but the <a href="/facts/Biological_dispersal/aju7c9ku">dispersal</a> rate is too low to have <a href="/facts/Demography/VktYwWUD">demographic</a> effect in the <a href="/facts/Population/ArxshNuB">population</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209"><sup>209</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><a href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=170968">"Parapercis colias"</a>. <a href="/facts/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System/nVg7fQUG">Integrated Taxonomic Information System</a>. Retrieved 30 January 2006.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Rainer_Froese/YSvh9csS">Froese, Rainer</a>; <a href="/facts/Daniel_Pauly/0JsBKSFT">Pauly, Daniel</a> (eds.). <a href="http://www.fishbase.org/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?genusname=Parapercis&speciesname=colias">"<i>Parapercis colias</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/facts/FishBase/SMpzPGmF">FishBase</a></i>. October 2005 version.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070212043039/http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Recreational/Most%2BPopular%2BSpecies/Blue%2BCod/Default.htm">Blue Cod Fishing and a link to the Blue Cod Fishing Regulations</a>. Ministry of Fisheries.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Carbines, G.D. (2004). "Age determination, validation, and growth of blue cod Parapercis colias, in Foveaux Strait, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 38 (2): 201–214. doi:10.1080/00288330.2004.9517231. S2CID 84616975. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288330.2004.9517231" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288330.2004.9517231</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>New Zealand Organisms Register. (2018). "Blue cod". Retrieved 2018-04-15. <a href="http://www.nzor.org.nz/names/7c8168dd-6bff-4c73-8d42-ff7c29015a4b" target="_blank">http://www.nzor.org.nz/names/7c8168dd-6bff-4c73-8d42-ff7c29015a4b</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Ministry for Primary Industries (2018). "New Zealand List of Scientific Names of Fish". Retrieved 2018-04-15. <a href="http://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/964-specification-of-scientific-names-of-fish" target="_blank">http://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/964-specification-of-scientific-names-of-fish</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Carbines, G. (1998). "Determination of movement of blue cod in Southland". Retrieved 2018-04-15. <a href="http://fs.fish.govt.nz/Doc/22465/BC09702%20Blue%20Cod%20in%20Southland.pdf.ashx" target="_blank">http://fs.fish.govt.nz/Doc/22465/BC09702%20Blue%20Cod%20in%20Southland.pdf.ashx</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Paulin, C.D. (1989). New Zealand fish, a complete guide. Te Papa Press. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Paulin, C.D. (1989). New Zealand fish, a complete guide. Te Papa Press. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Hirt-Chabbert, J. (2006). Fish species of New Zealand: a photographic guide. Reed books. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Jiang, W.; Carbines, G. (2002). "Diet of blue cod, Parapercis colias, living on undisturbed biogenic reefs and on seabed modified by oyster dredging in Foveaux Strait, New Zealand". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 12 (3): 257–272. doi:10.1002/aqc.495. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Russell, B. C. (1983). "The food and feeding habits of rocky reef fish of north-eastern New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 17 (2): 121–145. doi:10.1080/00288330.1983.9515991. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Mutch, P.G. (1983). Factors influencing the density and distribution of the P. colias, Parapercis colias. Pisces: Mugiloidae. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Ayling, T.; Cox, G.J. (1982). Collins guide to the sea fishes of New Zealand. Collins. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Pankhurst, N.W.; Conroy, A.M. (1987). "Seasonal changes in reproductive condition and plasma levels of sex steroids in the blue cod, Parapercis colias (Bloch and Schneider) (Mugiloididae)". Fish Physiology and Biochemistry. 4 (1): 11–26. doi:10.1007/BF02073862. PMID 24226034. S2CID 34714507. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Carbines, G.D. (1998). Blue cod age validation, tagging feasibility and sex-inversion. Final Research. Unpublished report, Ministry for Primary Industries. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Paul, L.J. (1997). Marine Fishes of New Zealand 1: Shoreline and Shallow Seas. Vol. 1. Reed. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Paul, L.J. (2000). New Zealand fishes: identification, natural history & fisheries. Reed. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Ministry for Primary Industries (2018). "blue cod". Retrieved 2018-04-15. <a href="https://www.mpi.govt.nz/travel-and-recreation/fishing/fish-species/blue-cod/" target="_blank">https://www.mpi.govt.nz/travel-and-recreation/fishing/fish-species/blue-cod/</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Ministry for Primary Industries (2014). "Fisheries Assessment Plenary May 2014: Stock Assessments and Stock Status. Blue Cod (BCO)". Retrieved 2018-04-15. <a href="http://fs.fish.govt.nz/Doc/23548/08_BCO%202014%20FINAL.pdf.ashx" target="_blank">http://fs.fish.govt.nz/Doc/23548/08_BCO%202014%20FINAL.pdf.ashx</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Carbines, G.D. (2004). Age, growth, movement and reproductive biology of blue cod (Parapercis colias – Pinguipedidae): Implications for fisheries management in the South Island of New Zealand (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis). University of Otago. p. 225. hdl:10523/8082. <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/10523/8082" target="_blank">http://hdl.handle.net/10523/8082</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Ministry for Primary Industries (2018). "blue cod". Retrieved 2018-04-15. <a href="https://www.mpi.govt.nz/travel-and-recreation/fishing/fish-species/blue-cod/" target="_blank">https://www.mpi.govt.nz/travel-and-recreation/fishing/fish-species/blue-cod/</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Paul, L.J. (2000). New Zealand fishes: identification, natural history & fisheries. Reed. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Ministry for Primary Industries (2018). "blue cod". 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Reed books. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Jiang, W.; Carbines, G. (2002). "Diet of blue cod, Parapercis colias, living on undisturbed biogenic reefs and on seabed modified by oyster dredging in Foveaux Strait, New Zealand". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 12 (3): 257–272. doi:10.1002/aqc.495. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Ministry for Primary Industries (2018). "blue cod". Retrieved 2018-04-15. <a href="https://www.mpi.govt.nz/travel-and-recreation/fishing/fish-species/blue-cod/" target="_blank">https://www.mpi.govt.nz/travel-and-recreation/fishing/fish-species/blue-cod/</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Ayling, T.; Cox, G.J. (1982). Collins guide to the sea fishes of New Zealand. 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