Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page

The ZX Spectrum is a pioneering 8-bit home computer developed by Sinclair Research and designed by Sir Clive Sinclair and his team in Cambridge. Launched in the UK in 1982 and later in the US as the Timex Sinclair 2068, it featured a colour display, rubber keyboard, and simple design by Rick Dickinson. Over five million units were sold, competing with the Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC. The Spectrum played a crucial role in the history of personal computers and video games, helping launch the British IT industry before its discontinuation in 1992.

Related Image Collections Add Image
Profiles
1 Image
We don't have any YouTube videos related to ZX Spectrum yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to ZX Spectrum yet.
We don't have any Books related to ZX Spectrum yet.

History

The ZX Spectrum was conceived and designed by engineers at Sinclair Research, founded by English entrepreneur and inventor Clive Sinclair, who was well known for his eccentricity and pioneering ethic.6 On 25 July 1961, three years after passing his A-levels, he founded Sinclair Radionics Ltd as a vehicle to advertise his inventions and buy components.7 In 1972, Sinclair had competed with Texas Instruments to produce the world's first pocket calculator, the Sinclair Executive.8 By the mid 1970s, Sinclair Radionics was producing handheld electronic calculators, miniature televisions, and the ill-fated digital Black Watch wristwatch.9 Due to financial losses, Sinclair sought investors from the National Enterprise Board (NEB), who had bought a 43% interest in the company and streamlined his product line. Sinclair's relationship with the NEB had worsened, however, and by 1979 it opted to break up Sinclair Radionics entirely,10 selling off its television division to Binatone and its calculator division to ESL Bristol.11

After incurring a £7 million investment loss, Sinclair was given a golden handshake and an estimated £10,000 severance package.1213 He had a former employee, Christopher Curry, establish a "corporate lifeboat" company named Science of Cambridge Ltd, in July 1977, called such as they were located near the University of Cambridge.14 By this time inexpensive microprocessors had started appearing on the market, which prompted Sinclair to start producing the MK14, a computer teaching kit which sold well at a very low price.15 Encouraged by this success, Sinclair renamed his company to Sinclair Research, and started looking to manufacture personal computers. Keeping the cost low was essential for Sinclair to avoid his products from becoming outpriced by American or Japanese equivalents as had happened to several of the previous Sinclair Radionics products.16 On 29 January 1980, the ZX80 home computer was launched to immediate popularity; notable for being one of the first computers available in the United Kingdom for less than £100.1718 The company conducted no market research whatsoever prior to the launch of the ZX80; according to Sinclair, he "simply had a hunch" that the public was sufficiently interested to make such a project feasible and went ahead with ordering 100,000 sets of parts so that he could launch at high volume.19

On 5 March 1981, the ZX81 was launched worldwide to immense success with more than 1.5 million units sold,20 60% of which was outside Britain.21 According to Ben Rosen, by pricing the ZX81 so low, the company had "opened up a completely new market among people who had never previously considered owning a computer".22 After its release, computing in Britain became an activity for the general public rather than the preserve of office workers and hobbyists. The ZX81's commercial success made Sinclair Research one of Britain's leading computer manufacturers, with Sinclair himself reportedly "amused and gratified" by the attention the machine received.23

Development

Development of the ZX Spectrum began in September 1981, a few months after the release of the ZX81. Sinclair resolved to make his own products obsolete before his rivals developed the products that would do so. Parts of designs from the ZX80 and ZX81 were reused to ensure a speedy and cost-effective manufacturing process. The team consisted of 20 engineers housed in a small office at 6 King's Parade, Cambridge.24 During early production, the machine was known as the ZX81 Colour or the ZX82 to highlight the machine's colour display, which differed from the black and white of its predecessors. The addendum "Spectrum" was added later on, to emphasise its 15-colour palette.25 Aside from a new crystal oscillator and extra chips to add additional kilobytes of memory,26 the ZX Spectrum was intended to be, as quoted by Sinclair's marketing manager, essentially a "ZX81 with colour".27 According to Sinclair, the team also wanted to combine the ZX81's separate random-access memory sections for audio and video into a single bank.28

Chief engineer Richard Altwasser was responsible for the ZX Spectrum's hardware design. His main contribution was the design of the semi-custom uncommitted logic array (ULA) integrated circuit, which integrated, on a single chip, the essential hardware functions. Altwasser designed a graphics mode that required less than 7 kilobytes of memory and implemented it on the ULA. Vickers wrote most of the ROM code. Lengthy discussions between Altwasser and Sinclair engineers resulted in a broad agreement that the ZX Spectrum must have high-resolution graphics, 16 kilobytes of memory, an improved cassette interface, and an impressive colour palette.29 To achieve this, the team had to divorce the central processing unit (CPU) away from the main display to enable it to work at full efficiency – a method which contrasted with the ZX81's integrated CPU.30 The inclusion of colour to the display proved a major obstacle to the engineers. A Teletext-like approach was briefly considered, in which each line of text would have colour-change codes inserted into it. However, this was ruled out, as it was deemed unsuitable for high-resolution graphs or diagrams that involved multiple colour changes. Altwasser devised the idea of allocating a colour attribute to each character position on the screen. This ultimately used eight bits of memory for each character position; three bits to provide any one of eight foreground colours and three bits for the eight background colours, one bit for extra brightness and one bit for flashing. Overall, the system took up slightly less than 7 kilobytes of memory, leaving an additional 9 kilobytes to write programs – a figure that pleased the team.31

Much of the firmware was written by computer scientist Steve Vickers from Nine Tiles,32 who compiled all control routines to produce the Sinclair BASIC interpreter, a custom variant of the general purpose BASIC programming language. Making a custom interpreter made it possible to fit all of its functionality into a very small amount of read-only memory (ROM).33 The development process of the software was marked by disagreements between Nine Tiles and Sinclair Research. Sinclair placed an emphasis on expediting the release of the Spectrum, primarily by minimising alterations in the software from the ZX81, which had in turn been based on the ZX80's software. The software architecture of the ZX80, however, had been tailored for a severely constrained memory system, and in Nine Tiles' opinion was unsuitable for the enhanced processing demands of the ZX Spectrum. Sinclair favoured solving this with expansion modules on the existing framework like with the ZX81, which Nine Tiles disagreed with. Ultimately, both designs were developed, but Vickers and Nine Tiles were unable to finish their version before the launch of the Spectrum and it was not used.34

The distinctive case and colourful design of the ZX Spectrum was the creation of Rick Dickinson, a young British industrial designer who had been hired by Sinclair to design the ZX81. Dickinson was tasked to design a sleeker and more "marketable" appearance to the new machine, whilst ensuring all 192 BASIC functions could fit onto 40 physical keys.35 Early sketches from August 1981 showed the case was to be more angular and wedge-like, in similar vein to an upgraded ZX81 model. Dickinson later settled on a flatter design with a raised rear section and rounded sides in order to depict the machine as "more advanced" as opposed to a mere upgrade. In drawing up potential logos, Dickinson proposed a series of different logotypes which all featured rainbow slashes across the keyboard.36

The design of the Spectrum's rubber keyboard was simplified from several hundred components to a conventional moving keyboard down to "four to five" moving parts using a new technology.37 The keyboard was still undergoing changes as late as February 1982; some sketches included a roundel-on-square key design which was later featured on the later Spectrum+ model.38 Dickinson recalled in 2007 that "everything was cost driven" and that the minimalist, Bauhaus approach to the Spectrum gave it an elegant yet "[non] revolutionary" form.39 The drawing board on which Dickinson designed the ZX Spectrum is now on display in the Science Museum in London.4041

The need for an improved cassette interface was apparent from the number of complaints received from ZX81 users, who encountered problems when trying to save and load programs.42 To increase the data transfer speed, the team significantly decreased the length of tones that represent binary data.43 To increase the reliability, a leading period of constant tone was introduced, which allowed the cassette recorder's automatic gain control to settle itself down, eliminating hisses on the tape.44 A Schmitt trigger was added inside the ULA to reduce noise of the received signal.45 Originally, the team aimed for data transfer speed of 1000 baud, but succeeded in getting it to work at a considerably faster 1500 baud.46 Unlike the ZX81, the Spectrum was able to maintain its display during loading and saving operations, and programmers took advantage of this to show a splash screen whilst loading took place in the background.

As with the ZX81, the ZX Spectrum was manufactured in Dundee, Scotland, by Timex Corporation at the company's Dryburgh factory.4748 Prior to the manufacture of the ZX81, however, Timex had little experience in assembling electronics and had not originally been an obvious choice of manufacturing subcontractor. It was a well-established manufacturer of mechanical watches but was facing a crisis at the beginning of the 1980s; profits had dwindled to virtually zero as the market for watches stagnated in the face of competition from the digital and quartz watches. Recognising the trend, Timex's director, Fred Olsen, determined that the company would diversify into other areas and signed a contract with Sinclair.49

Launch

The ZX Spectrum was officially revealed before journalists by Sinclair at the Churchill Hotel in Marylebone, London, on 23 April 1982.5051 Later that week, the machine was officially presented in a "blaze of publicity" at the Earl's Court Computer Show in London,5253 and the ZX Microfair in Manchester.54 The ZX Spectrum was launched with two models: a 16KB 'basic' version, and an enhanced 48KB variant.55 The former model had an undercutting price of £125, significantly lower than its main competitor the BBC Micro, whilst the latter model's price of £175 was comparable to a third of an Apple II computer.5657 Upon release, the keyboard surprised many users due to its use of rubber keys, described as offering the feel of "dead flesh".5859 Sinclair himself remarked that the keyboard's rubber mould was "unusual", but consumers were undeterred.60

Despite very high demand, Sinclair Research was "notoriously late" in delivering the ZX Spectrum. Their practice of offering mail-order sales before units were ready ensured a constant cash flow, but meant a lacking distribution.61 Nigel Searle, the newly-appointed chief of Sinclair's computer division, said in June 1982 the company had no plans to stock the new machine in WHSmith, which was at the time Sinclair's only retailer.62 Searle explained that the mail-order system was in place due to there being no "obvious" retail outlets in the United Kingdom which could sell personal computers, and it made "better sense" financially to continue selling through mail-order.63 The company's conservative approach to distributing the machine was criticised,64 with disillusioned customers telephoning and writing letters.6566 Demand sky-rocketed beyond Sinclair's planned 20,000 monthly unit output to a backlog of 30,000 orders by July 1982. Due to a scheduled holiday at the Timex factory that summer, the backlog had risen to 40,000 units. Sinclair issued a public apology in September that year,67 and promised that the backlog would be cleared by the end of that month.68 Supply did not return to normal until the 1982 Christmas season, however.69

Production of the machine rapidly increased with the arrival of the less expensive Issue 2 motherboard, a redesign of the main circuit board which addressed hardware manufacturing defects that affected production of the first model.70 Sales of the ZX Spectrum reached 200,000 in its first nine months,71 rising to 300,000 for the whole of the first year.72 By August 1983 total sales in Britain and Europe had exceeded 500,000,73 with the millionth Spectrum manufactured on 9 December 1983. By this point, an average of 50,000 units were being purchased each month.74

In July 1983, an enhanced version of the ZX Spectrum was launched in the United States as the Timex Sinclair 2068. Advertisements described it as offering 72 kilobytes of memory, having a full range of colour and sound for a price under $200.75 Despite the improvements upon its British counterpart, sales proved poor and Timex Sinclair collapsed the following year.767778

Success and market domination

A crucial part of the company's marketing strategy was to implement regular price-cutting at strategic intervals to maintain market share. Ian Adamson and Richard Kennedy noted that Sinclair's method was driven by securing his leading position through "panicking" the competition. While most companies at the time reduced prices of their products while their market share was dwindling, Sinclair Research discounted theirs shortly after sales had peaked, throwing the competition into "utter disarray".79 Sinclair Research made a profit of £14 million in 1983, compared to £8.5 million the previous year. Turnover doubled from £27.2 million to £54.5 million, which equated to roughly £1 million for each person employed directly by the company.80

Clive Sinclair became a focal point during the ZX Spectrum's marketing campaign by putting a human face onto the business. Sinclair Research was portrayed in the media as a "plucky" British challenger taking on the technical and marketing might of giant American and Japanese corporations. As David O'Reilly noted in 1986, "by astute use of public relations, particularly playing up his image of a Briton taking on the world, Sinclair has become the best-known name in micros."81 The media latched onto Sinclair's image; his "Uncle Clive" persona is said to have been created by the gossip columnist for Personal Computer World.82 The press praised Sinclair as a visionary genius, with The Sun lauding him as "the most prodigious inventor since Leonardo da Vinci". Adamson and Kennedy wrote that Sinclair outgrew the role of microcomputer manufacturer and "accepted the mantle of pioneering boffin leading Britain into a technological utopia".83 Sinclair's contribution to the technology sector resulted in him being knighted upon the recommendation of Margaret Thatcher in the Queen's 1983 Birthday Honours List.848586

The United Kingdom was largely immunised from the effects of the video game crash of 1983, due to the saturation of home computers such as the ZX Spectrum.878889 The microcomputer market continued to grow and game development was unhindered despite the turbulence in the American markets. Indeed, computer games remained the dominant sector of the British home video game market up until they were surpassed by Sega and Nintendo consoles in 1991.90 By the end of 1983 there were more than 450 companies in Britain selling video games on cassette, compared to 95 the year before.91 An estimated 10,000 to 50,000 people, mostly young men, were developing games out of their homes based on advertisements in popular magazines. The growth of video games during this period has been compared to the punk subculture, fuelled by young people making money from their games.92

By the mid 1980s, Sinclair Research's share of the British home computer market had climbed to a high of 40 per cent.93 Sales in the 1984 Christmas season were described as "extremely good".94 In early 1985 the British press reported the home computer boom to have ended,95 leaving many companies slashing prices of their hardware to anticipate lower sales.96 Despite this, celebration of Sinclair's success in the computing market continued at the Which Computer? show in Birmingham, where the five-millionth Sinclair machine (a gold coloured QL) was issued as a prize.97

Later years and company decline

The ZX Spectrum's successor, the Sinclair QL, was officially announced on 12 January 1984, shortly before the Macintosh 128K went on sale.98 Contrasting with its predecessors, the QL was aimed at more serious, professional home users.99 It suffered from several design flaws; fully operational QLs were not available until the late summer, and complaints against Sinclair concerning delays were upheld by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in May of that year. Particularly serious were allegations that Sinclair was cashing cheques months before machines were shipped. By autumn 1984, Sinclair was still publicly forecasting that it would be a "million seller" and that 250,000 units would be sold by the end of the year.100 QL production was suspended in February 1985, and the price was halved by the end of the year.101 It ultimately flopped, with 139,454 units being manufactured.102

The ZX Spectrum+, a rebranded ZX Spectrum with identical technical specifications except for the QL-like keyboard, was introduced in October 1984 and made available in WHSmith's stores the day after its launch. Retailers stocked the device in high quantities, anticipating robust Christmas sales. Nevertheless, the product did not perform as well as projected, leading to a significant drop in Sinclair's income from orders in January, as retailers were left with surplus stock. Subsequently, an upgraded model, the ZX Spectrum 128, was released in Spain in September 1985, with development financed by the Spanish distributor Investrónica.103 The launch of this model in the UK was postponed until January 1986 due to the substantial leftover inventory of the prior model.104

While the Sinclair QL was in development, Sinclair also hoped to repeat his success with the Spectrum in the fledgling electric vehicle market, which he saw as ripe for a new approach. On 10 January 1985, Sinclair unveiled the Sinclair C5, a small one-person battery electric recumbent tricycle. It marked the culmination of Sir Clive's long-running interest in electric vehicles.105 The C5 turned out to be a significant commercial failure, selling only 17,000 units and losing Sinclair £7 million. It has since been described as "one of the great marketing bombs of postwar British industry".106 The ASA ordered Sinclair to withdraw advertisements for the C5 after finding that the company's claims about its safety could not be proved or justified.107

The combined failures of the C5 and QL caused investors to lose confidence in Sinclair's judgement. In May 1985, Sinclair Research announced their intention to raise an additional £10 to £15 million to restructure the organisation. Given the loss of confidence in the company, securing the funds proved to be a challenging task. In June 1985, business magnate Robert Maxwell disclosed a takeover bid for Sinclair Research through Hollis Brothers, a subsidiary of his Pergamon Press.108 However, the deal was terminated in August 1985.109 The future of Sinclair Research remained uncertain until 7 April 1986, when the company sold their entire computer product range, along with the "Sinclair" brand name, to Alan Sugar's Amstrad for £5 million.110 The takeover sent ripples through the London Stock Exchange, but Amstrad's shares soon recovered, with one stock broker affirming that "the City appears to have taken the news in its stride".111 Amstrad's acquisition of the brand name saw the release of three ZX Spectrum models throughout the late 1980s, each with varying improvements.112

By 1990, Sinclair Research consisted of Sinclair and two other employees down from 130 employees at its peak in 1985.113 The ZX Spectrum was officially discontinued in 1992, after ten years on the market.114115 Sinclair Research continued to exist as a one-man company, marketing Sir Clive Sinclair's inventions until his death in September 2021.

Hardware

Technical specifications

The central processing unit is a Zilog Z80, an 8-bit microprocessor, with a clock rate of 3.5 MHz. The original model Spectrum has 16 KB of ROM and either 16 KB or 48 KB of RAM.116

Graphics

See also: ZX Spectrum graphic modes

Video output is channelled through an RF modulator, intended for use with contemporary television sets, to provide a simple colour graphic display. Text is displayed using a grid of 32 columns × 24 rows of characters from the ZX Spectrum character set, or from a custom set. The machine features a colour palette of 15 colours, consisting of seven saturated colours at two levels of brightness, along with black.117 The image resolution is 256×192 pixels, subject to the same colour limitations.118 To optimise memory usage, colour is stored separately from the pixel bitmap in a low resolution, 32×24 grid overlay, corresponding to the character cells. In practical terms, this means that all pixels within an 8x8 character block share one foreground colour and one background colour. Altwasser received a patent for this design.119

An "attribute" consists of a foreground and a background colour, a brightness level (normal or bright) and a flashing "flag" which, when set, causes the two colours to swap at regular intervals.120 This scheme leads to what was dubbed "colour clash" or attribute clash, where a desired colour of a specific pixel could not be selected, but only the colour attributes of an 8x8 block. This became a distinctive feature of the Spectrum, requiring programs, especially games, to be designed with this limitation in mind. In contrast, other machines available at the same time, such as the Amstrad CPC or the Commodore 64, did not suffer from this limitation. While the Commodore 64 also employed colour attributes, it utilised a special multicolour mode and hardware sprites to circumvent attribute clash.121

Sound

Sound output is produced through a built-in beeper capable of generating a single channel with ten octaves.122 It is controlled by a single EAR bit.123 By toggling it on and off, simple sounds are generated. This speaker, capable of producing just one note at a time, was governed by the BASIC command 'BEEP', where programmers could manipulate parameters for pitch and duration.124 Furthermore, the processor remained occupied exclusively with the BASIC BEEPs until their completion, limiting concurrent operations. Despite these constraints, it marked a significant step forward from the ZX81, which lacked any sound capabilities. Resourceful programmers swiftly devised workarounds; its rudimentary audio functionality compelled developers to explore unconventional methods such as programming the beeper to emit multiple pitches.125

Later software became available that allowed for two-channel sound playback. The machine includes an expansion bus edge connector and 3.5 mm audio in/out ports, facilitating the connection of a cassette recorder for loading and saving programs and data. The EAR port has a higher output than the MIC and is recommended for headphones, while the MIC port is intended for attachment to other audio devices as a line-in source.126

Other integrated peripherals

The ZX Spectrum integrated elements from the ZX81. The keyboard decoding and cassette interfaces are nearly identical, although the latter was programmed for higher-speed loading and saving. The central ULA integrated circuit shares some resemblance with that of the ZX81, but it features a hardware-based television raster generator with colour support. This indirectly provides the new machine with roughly four times the processing power of the ZX81, as the Z80 is relieved of video generation tasks. An initial ULA design flaw occasionally led to incorrect keyboard scanning, which was resolved by adding a small circuit board mounted upside down next to the CPU in Issue 1 ZX Spectrums.127

Firmware

The machine's Sinclair BASIC interpreter is stored in 16 KiB ROM, along with essential system routines. The ROM code, responsible for tasks such as floating point calculations and expression parsing, exhibited significant similarities to ZX81, although a few outdated routines remained in the Spectrum ROM.128 The Spectrum's keyboard is imprinted with BASIC keywords. To input a command in BASIC, many keywords require a single keyboard stroke. Other keywords require a change of keyboard mode by a few keystrokes.129

The BASIC interpreter is derived from the one used on the ZX81. A BASIC program for ZX81 can be entered into a ZX Spectrum with minimal modifications. However, Spectrum BASIC introduced numerous additional features, enhancing its usability. The ZX Spectrum character set was expanded compared to that of the ZX81, which lacked lowercase letters. Spectrum BASIC incorporated extra keywords for better graphics and sound functionality, and support for multi-statement lines was added. The built-in ROM tape modulation software routines for cassette data storage enable data transfers at an average speed of 171 bits per second (bit/s), with a theoretical peak speed of 256 bit/s. The tape modulation is significantly more advanced than the ZX81, with approximately four times faster average speeds.130

Sinclair Research models

ZX Spectrum 16K/48K

The original ZX Spectrum is remembered for its rubber chiclet keyboard, diminutive size and distinctive rainbow motif. It was originally released on 23 April 1982 with 16 KB of RAM for £125 (equivalent to £557 in 2023) or with 48 KB for £175 (equivalent to £780 in 2023);131 these prices were reduced to £99 (equivalent to £422 in 2023) and £129 (equivalent to £550 in 2023) respectively in 1983.132 Owners of the 16 KB model could purchase an internal 32 KB RAM upgrade, which for early "Issue 1" machines consisted of a daughterboard. Later issue machines required the fitting of 8 dynamic RAM chips and a few TTL chips. Users could mail their 16K Spectrums to Sinclair to be upgraded to 48 KB versions. Later revisions contained 64 KB of memory but were configured such that only 48 KB were usable.133 External 32 KB RAM packs that mounted in the rear expansion slot were available from third parties. Both machines had 16 KB of onboard ROM.134

An "Issue 1" ZX Spectrum can be distinguished from Issue 2 or 3 models by the colour of the keys – light grey for Issue 1, blue-grey for later machines.135 Although the official service manual states that approximately 26,000 of these original boards were manufactured,136 subsequent serial number analysis shows that only 16,000 were produced, almost all of which fell in the serial number range 001-000001 to 001-016000.137 An online tool now exists to allow users to ascertain the likely issue number of their ZX Spectrum by inputting the serial number.138

These models experienced numerous changes to its motherboard design throughout its life; mainly to improve manufacturing efficiencies, but also to correct bugs from previous boards. Another issue was with the Spectrum's power supply. In March 1983, Sinclair issued an urgent recall warning for all owners of models bought after 1 January 1983.139 Plugs with a non-textured surface were at risk of causing shock, and were asked to be sent back to a warehouse in Cambridgeshire which would supply a replacement within 48 hours.140141

ZX Spectrum+

Development of the ZX Spectrum+ began in June 1984,142 and was released on 15 October that year at £179.143144[117] It was assembled by AB Electronics in South Wales and Samsung in South Korea.145 This 48 KB Spectrum introduced a new QL-style case with an injection-moulded keyboard and a reset button that functions as a switch shorting across the CPU reset capacitor. Electronically, it was identical to the previous 48 KB model. The machine outsold the rubber-key model two to one,146 however, some retailers reported a failure rate of up to 30%, compared with a more typical 5–6% for the older model.[117] In early 1985, the original Spectrum was officially discontinued, and the ZX Spectrum+ was reduced in price to £129.147

ZX Spectrum 128

In 1985, Sinclair developed the ZX Spectrum 128 (codenamed Derby) in conjunction with their Spanish distributor Investrónica (a subsidiary of El Corte Inglés department store group).148149150 Investrónica had helped adapt the ZX Spectrum+ to the Spanish market after their government introduced a special tax on all computers with 64 KB RAM or less,151 and a law which obliged all computers sold in Spain to support the Spanish alphabet and show messages in Spanish.152

The appearance of the ZX Spectrum 128 is similar to the ZX Spectrum+, with the addition of a large external heatsink for the internal 7805 voltage regulator to the right-hand end of the case, replacing the internal heatsink in previous versions. This external heatsink led to the system's nickname, "The Toast Rack".153 New features included 128 KB RAM with RAM disc commands, three-channel audio via the AY-3-8912 chip, MIDI compatibility, an RS-232 serial port, an RGB monitor port, 32 KB of ROM including an improved BASIC editor, and an external keypad.154

The machine was simultaneously unveiled for the first time and launched in September 1985 at the SIMO '85 trade show in Spain, with a price of 44,250 pesetas. Sinclair later presented the ZX Spectrum 128 at The May Fair Hotel's Crystal Rooms in London, where he acknowledged that entertainment was the most common use of home computers. Due to the large number of unsold Spectrum+ models, Sinclair decided not to start it selling in the United Kingdom until January 1986 at a price of £179.155156

The Zilog Z80 processor used in the Spectrum has a 16-bit address bus, which means only 64 KB of memory can be directly addressed. To facilitate the extra 80 KB of RAM the designers used bank switching so the new memory would be available as eight pages of 16 KB at the top of the address space. The same technique was used to page between the new 16 KB editor ROM and the original 16 KB BASIC ROM at the bottom of the address space.[126]

The new sound chip and MIDI out abilities were exposed to the BASIC programming language with the command PLAY and a new command SPECTRUM was added to switch the machine into 48K mode, keeping the current BASIC program intact (although there is no command to switch back to 128K mode). To enable BASIC programmers to access the additional memory, a RAM disk was created where files could be stored in the additional 80 KB of RAM. The new commands took the place of two existing user-defined-character spaces causing compatibility problems with certain BASIC programs.[127] Unlike its predecessors, it has no internal speaker, and can only produce sound from a television speaker.157

Amstrad models

ZX Spectrum +2

The ZX Spectrum +2 marked Amstrad's entry into the Spectrum market shortly after their acquisition of the Spectrum range and "Sinclair" brand in 1986. This machine featured a brand-new grey case with a spring-loaded keyboard, dual joystick ports, and an integrated cassette recorder known as the "Datacorder," akin to the Amstrad CPC 464. The ROM was updated so that the screen on boot-up showed an Amstrad copyright message (© 1986 Amstrad in place of the previous © 1982 Sinclair Research Ltd). However, it was largely identical to the ZX Spectrum 128 in most technical aspects. The machine retailed for £149.158

The new keyboard did not feature the BASIC keyword markings seen on earlier Spectrums, except for the keywords LOAD, CODE, and RUN, which were useful for loading software. Instead, the +2 introduced a menu system, almost identical to that of the ZX Spectrum 128, allowing users to switch between 48K BASIC programming with keywords and 128K BASIC programming, where all words, both keywords and others, needed to be typed out in full (though keywords were still stored internally as one character each). Despite these changes, the layout remained identical to that of the 128.159

ZX Spectrum +3

The ZX Spectrum +3, which was launched in 1987, bore a resemblance to its predecessor but introduced a built-in 3-inch floppy disk drive instead of the cassette drive. Initially priced at £249,160 it later retailed for £199.161 It was the only Spectrum model capable of running the CP/M operating system without additional hardware. Unlike its predecessors, the ZX Spectrum +3 power supply utilised a DIN connector and featured "Sinclair +3" branding on the case.162

Significant alterations caused a series of incompatibilities, such as the removal of several lines on the expansion bus edge connector. This resulted in complications for various peripherals. Additionally, changes in memory timing led to certain RAM banks being contended, causing failures in high-speed colour-changing effects. The keypad scanning routines from the ROM were also eliminated, rendering some older 48K and 128K games incompatible with the machine. The ZX Interface 1 was also rendered incompatible due to disparities in ROM and expansion connectors, making it impossible to connect and use the Microdrive units.163

Production of the +3 was discontinued in December 1990, reportedly in response to Amstrad's relaunch of their CPC range, with an estimated 15% of ZX Spectrums sold being +3 models at the time. The +2B model, the only other model still in production at this point, continued to be manufactured, as it was believed not to be in direct competition with other computers in Amstrad's product range.164165

ZX Spectrum +2A, +2B and +3B

The ZX Spectrum +2A was a new version of the Spectrum +2166 using the same circuit board as the Spectrum +3.167168 It was sold from late 1988 and unlike the original grey +2 was housed inside a black case.169170 The Spectrum +2A/+3 motherboard (AMSTRAD part number Z70830) was designed so that it could be assembled with a +2 style "datacorder" connected instead of the floppy disk controller.[136] The power supply of the ZX Spectrum +2A used the same pinout as the +3 and has "Sinclair +2" written on the case.[137]

1989 saw the release of the ZX Spectrum +2B and ZX Spectrum +3B. They are functionally similar in design to the Spectrum +2A and +3,171 though changes to the generation of the audio output signal were made to resolve problems with clipping.172 The +2B board has no provision for floppy disk controller circuitry, while the +3B motherboard has no provision for connecting an internal tape drive. Production of all Amstrad Spectrum models ended in 1992.173

Licences and clones

See also: List of ZX Spectrum clones

Official licences

Sinclair Research granted a licence for the ZX Spectrum design to the Timex Corporation in the United States. Timex marketed several computer models under the Timex Sinclair brand. They introduced an enhanced variant of the original Spectrum in the US, known as the Timex Sinclair 2068. This upgraded model features improvements in sound, graphics, and various other aspects. However, Timex's versions were generally not compatible with Sinclair systems.

Timex of Portugal developed and produced several branded computers, including a PAL region-compatible version of the Timex Sinclair 2068, known as the Timex Computer 2048. This variant features distinct buffers for both the ULA and the CPU, significantly enhancing compatibility with ZX Spectrum software compared to the American model.174175 Software developed for the Portuguese-made 2048 remained fully compatible with its American counterpart, as the ROMs were left unaltered. Timex of Portugal also created a ZX Spectrum "emulator" in cartridge form.176 Several other upgrades were introduced, including a BASIC64 cartridge enabling it to utilise high-resolution (512x192) modes.177 This model saw significant success in both Portugal and Poland.178

In India, Deci Bells Electronics Limited179 based in Pune, introduced a licensed version of the Spectrum+ in 1988.180181182 Dubbed the "dB Spectrum+", it performed well in the Indian market, selling over 50,000 units and achieving an 80% market share.183

Unofficial clones

Numerous unofficial Spectrum clones were produced, especially in Eastern Europe. Many small start-ups in the Soviet Union assembled various clones, distributed through poster adverts and street stalls. Over 50 such clone models existed in total.184 In Czechoslovakia, the first production ZX Spectrum clone was the Didaktik Gama, sporting two switched 32 KB memory banks and 16 KB of slower RAM containing graphical data for video output, followed by Didaktik M, with later availability of a 5.25"/3.5" floppy disk drives; and a Didaktik Kompakt clone with a built-in floppy drive.185 There were also clones produced in South America, such as the Brazilian-made TK90X and TK95,186 as well as the Argentine Czerweny CZ models.187

In the United Kingdom, Spectrum peripheral vendor Miles Gordon Technology (MGT) released the SAM Coupé 8-bit home computer in December 1989. It was designed to be fully compatible with the ZX Spectrum 48K, housing a Zilog Z80B processor clocked at 6 MHz and 256KB of RAM.188 By this point, the Amiga and Atari ST had taken hold of the market, leaving MGT in eventual receivership in June 1990.189 In his book Retro Tech, Peter Leigh considers the Sam Coupé to be the "true" successor of the ZX Spectrum.190

Peripherals

Several peripherals were developed and marketed by Sinclair. The ZX Printer, a small spark printer, was already on the market upon the ZX Spectrum's release,191 as its computer bus was partially backward-compatible with that of its predecessor, the ZX81. It uses two electrically charged styli to burn away the surface of aluminium-coated paper to reveal the black underlay.192

The ZX Interface 1 add-on module, launched in 1983, includes 8 KB of ROM, an RS-232 serial port, a proprietary local area network (LAN) interface known as ZX Net, and a port for connecting up to eight ZX Microdrives – tape-loop cartridge storage devices released in July 1983, known for their speed, albeit with some reliability concerns.193194 Sinclair Research also introduced the ZX Interface 2, which added two joystick ports and a ROM cartridge port.195 Although the ZX Microdrives were initially greeted with good reviews,196 they never became a popular distribution method due to fears over cartridge quality and piracy.197

Third-party hardware add-ons were available throughout the machine's life, including the Kempston joystick interface,198 the Morex Peripherals Centronics/RS-232 interface, the Currah Microspeech unit for speech synthesis,199 Videoface Digitiser,200 the SpecDrum drum machine,201 and the Multiface, a snapshot and disassembly tool from Romantic Robot.202 After the original ZX Spectrum's keyboard received criticism for its "dead flesh" feel,203 external keyboards became popular.204 In 1983, DK'Tronics launched a Light Pen compatible with some drawing software.205

The Abbeydale Designers/Watford Electronics SPDOS and KDOS disk drive interfaces were bundled with office productivity software, including the Tasword word processor, Masterfile database, and Omnicalc spreadsheet.206 This bundle, along with OCP's Stock Control, Finance, and Payroll systems, introduced small businesses to streamlined computerised operations.207 In 1987 and 1988, Miles Gordon Technology released the DISCiPLE and +D systems. These systems had the capability to store memory images as disk snapshots, allowing users to restore the Spectrum to its exact previous state. Both systems were compatible with the Microdrive command syntax, simplifying the porting of existing software.208

In the mid-1980s, Telemap Group launched a fee-based service allowing ZX Spectrum users to connect their machines to the Micronet 800 information provider via a Prism Micro Products VTX5000 modem. Micronet 800, hosted by Prestel, provided news and information about microcomputers and offered a form of instant messaging and online shopping.209

Software

Main articles: ZX Spectrum software and List of ZX Spectrum games

Most Spectrum software was originally distributed on audio cassette tapes, intended to work with a normal domestic cassette recorder.210211 Software was mainly distributed through print media such as magazines and books.212213214 To load software onto the machine, the reader would type the BASIC program listing by hand, run it, and save it to the cassette for later use. Some magazines distributed 7" 331⁄3 rpm flexi disc records, or "Floppy ROMs", a variant of regular vinyl records which could be played on a standard record player.215 Some radio stations would broadcast audio stream data via frequency modulation or medium wave so that listeners could directly record it onto an audio cassette themselves. ZX Spectrum-focused radio programmes existed in the United Kingdom, which were received over long distances on domestic radio receivers.216

Different types of software released for the machine include programming language implementations, databases,217 word processors (Tasword being the most prominent218), spreadsheets,219 drawing and painting tools (e.g. OCP Art Studio220), 3D-modelling (e.g. VU-3D221222) and archaeology software.223 Over 24,000 different software titles were released for the ZX Spectrum throughout its lifespan.224 The ZX Spectrum had an extensive library of video games, including iconic titles such as Manic Miner, Jet Set Willy, Chuckie Egg, Elite, Sabre Wulf, Knight Lore, and The Hobbit. Many of the popular ZX81 titles were rewritten for the Spectrum to take advantage of the newer machine's colour and sound capabilities (Psion's Flight Simulation being a notable example). These games were instrumental in establishing the machine as a prominent gaming platform during the 1980s. Hardware limitations of the machine required a level of creativity from video game designers.225226 From August 1982 the ZX Spectrum came bundled with Horizons: Software Starter Pack,227 a software compilation which included ten demonstration programs.228

Some ZX Spectrum games hold a number of industry-firsts and Guinness World Records. These include Ant Attack, the first computer game to use isometric graphics,229 Turbo Esprit, the first open world driving game,230 and Redhawk, which featured the first superhero created specifically for a video game.231

Reception

Initial reception of the ZX Spectrum was generally positive. Critics in Britain welcomed the new machine as a worthy successor to the ZX81; Robin Bradbeer of Sinclair User praised the additional keyboard functions the Spectrum had to offer, and lauded the "strength" of its ergonomic and presentable design.232 Tim Hartnell from Your Computer noted that Sinclair had improved on the shortcomings of the ZX80 and ZX81 by revamping the Spectrum's load and save functions, noting that it made working with the machine "a pleasure".233 Hartnell concluded that despite minor faults, the machine was "way ahead" of its competitors, and its specification exceeded that of the BBC Micro Model A.234

Computer and Video Games' Terry Pratt compared the Spectrum's keyboard negatively to the typewriter-style used on the BBC Micro, opining that it was an improvement over the ZX81 but unsuited for "typists".235 In similar vein, David Tebbutt from Personal Computer World felt that the Spectrum's keyboard felt more like a calculator than typewriter, but praised its functional versatility.236 Likewise, Gregg Williams from BYTE criticised the keyboard, declaring that despite the machine's attractive price the layout "is impossible to justify" and "poorly designed" in several respects. Williams was sceptical of the computer's appeal to American consumers if sold for US$220 – "hardly competitive with comparable low-cost American units" – and expected that Timex would sell it for $125–150.237 A more negative review came from Jim Lennox of Technology Week, who wrote that "after using it [...] I find Sinclair's claim that it is the most powerful computer under £500 unsustainable. Compared to more powerful machines, it is slow, its colour graphics are disappointing, its BASIC limited and its keyboard confusing".238

Legacy

The importance of the ZX Spectrum and its role in the early history of personal computing and video gaming has left it regarded as the most important and influential computer of the 1980s.239240241 Some observers credit it as being responsible for launching the British information technology industry during a period of recession,242 while introducing home computing to the masses.243 As of 2024, it is also one of the best-selling British computers of all time, with over five million units sold by the end of the Spectrum's lifespan in 1992.244245 It retained the title of Britain's top-selling computer until the Amstrad PCW surpassed it in the 1990s, with eight million units sold by the end of the PCW's lifespan in 1998.246247 The ZX Spectrum is affectionately known as the "Speccy" by elements of its fan following.248

The ZX Spectrum was popular in communist Czechoslovakia, with an estimated 100,000 in the country by 1988 making it the most popular home computer of the time. This was despite only briefly being officially distributed, and never advertised. Its small size made it easier to smuggle into the country to avoid high customs fees.249

A number of notable game developers began their careers on the ZX Spectrum. Tim and Chris Stamper founded Ultimate Play the Game in 1982,250 who found success with their blockbuster hits Jetpac (1983), Atic Atac (1983), Sabre Wulf (1984), and Knight Lore (1984).251 The Stamper brothers later founded Rare, which became Nintendo's first Western third-party developer.252 David Perry, the founder of Shiny Entertainment, moved from Northern Ireland to England to focus on developing games for the ZX Spectrum.253

Other developers, well known for their ZX Spectrum games, include (alphabetically): Pete Cooke (Tau Ceti), Julian Gollop (Chaos, Rebelstar and the X-COM series), Jon Ritman (Match Day, Head Over Heels), Mike Singleton (The Lords of Midnight, Doomdark's Revenge, War in Middle Earth), Jonathan "Joffa" Smith (Batman: The Caped Crusader, Mikie, Hyper Sports), Matthew Smith (Manic Miner, Jet Set Willy), Clive Townsend (Saboteur), The Oliver Twins (the Dizzy series), Sandy White (Ant Attack, among the first isometric games; I, of the Mask). Computer musicians (David Whittaker, Tim Follin among others), created multi-channel music for the machine that only had a beeper to produce sound.

Some programmers have continued to code for the platform by using emulators.254 A homebrew community continues into the present day, with several games being released commercially from new software houses such as Cronosoft.255 In 2020, a museum dedicated to the ZX Spectrum and other Sinclair products opened in Cantanhede, Portugal.256

Recreations

In 2013, an FPGA-based clone known as the ZX Uno, was formally announced. All of its hardware, firmware and software are open source,257 released as Creative Commons licence Share-alike. The use of a Spartan FPGA allows the system to not only re-implement the ZX Spectrum, but many other 8-bit computers and games consoles.258 The Uno was successfully crowdfunded in 2016 and the first boards went on sale the same year.259

In January 2014, Elite Systems, who produced a successful range of software for the original ZX Spectrum in the 1980s, announced plans for a Spectrum-themed bluetooth keyboard that would attach to mobile devices.260261 The company used a crowdfunding campaign to fund the Recreated ZX Spectrum, which would be compatible with games the company had already released on iTunes and Google Play.262 Elite Systems took down its Spectrum Collection application the following month, due to complaints from authors of the original software that they had not been paid for the content.263 Wired UK described the finished device, which was styled as an original Spectrum 48k keyboard, as "absolutely gorgeous" but said it was ultimately more of an expensive novelty than an actual Spectrum.264 In July 2019, Eurogamer reported that many of the orders had yet to be delivered due to a dispute between Elite Systems and their manufacturer, Eurotech.265

Later in 2014, the ZX Spectrum Vega retro video game console was announced by Retro Computers and crowdfunded on Indiegogo with the backing of Clive Sinclair.266 The Vega, released in 2015, took the form of a handheld TV game267268 but the lack of a full keyboard269 led to criticism from reviewers due to the large number of text adventures supplied with the device.270271 Most reviewers branded the device cheap and uncomfortable to use.272273 The follow-up, the ZX Spectrum Vega+ was designed as a handheld game console. Despite reaching its crowdfunding target in March 2016,274 the company failed to fulfil the majority of orders. Reviewing the Vega+, The Register criticised numerous aspects and features of the machine, including its design and build quality and summed up by saying that the "entire feel is plasticky and inconsequential".275 Retro Computers Ltd was placed into liquidation in 2019.276

The ZX Spectrum Next is an expanded and updated version of the ZX Spectrum computer implemented with FPGA technology277 funded by a Kickstarter campaign in April 2017,278 with the board-only computer delivered to backers later that year.279 The finished machine, including a case designed by Rick Dickinson who died during the development of the project,280 was released to backers in February 2020.281 MagPi called it "a lovely piece of kit", noting that it is "well-designed and well-built: authentic to the original, and with technology that nods to the past while remaining functional and relevant in the modern age".282 PC Pro magazine called the Next "undeniably impressive" while noting that some features are "not quite ready".283 A further Kickstarter for an improved revision of the hardware was funded in August 2020.284

The ZX Touch is a handheld gaming console, released by Elmar Electronic in November 2023, that uses bare-metal emulation to play ZX Spectrum games. It features a 7-inch touchscreen, built-in games, and microSD support for loading additional games.285

In August 2024, Retro Games announced that they would be releasing a recreation of the ZX Spectrum titled "The Spectrum" which would include 48 built-in games, a save game option, rewind mode and pre-owned titles load up. It was released on 22 November 2024.286287

In popular culture

A running gag in Scott Pilgrim vs. the World features character Julie Powers being censored with the sound effects of the ZX Spectrum. The director of the film, Edgar Wright, who was a big fan of the Spectrum, stated that he always used to wait for Spectrum games to load when he was a teenager.288

On 23 April 2012, a Google doodle honoured the 30th anniversary of the Spectrum. As it coincided with St George's Day, the Google logo was of St George fighting a dragon in the style of a Spectrum loading screen.289

One of the alternate endings in the interactive film Black Mirror: Bandersnatch (2018) included the main character playing data tape audio that, when loaded into a ZX Spectrum software emulator, generates a QR code leading to a website with a playable version of the "Nohzdyve" game featured in the film.290

See also

  • Video games portal
  • 1980s portal
  • United Kingdom portal

Sources

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sinclair ZX Spectrum.

References

  1. Day, Peter (9 September 2014). "How Dundee became a computer games centre". BBC News. London. Archived from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-29122873 ↩

  2. Lewis, Rhys (23 April 2016). "April 23, 1982: ZX Spectrum brings affordable – and colourful – computing into Britain's homes". London: British Telecom. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20160430023322/http://home.bt.com/news/world-news/april-23-1982-zx-spectrum-brings-affordable-and-colourful-computing-into-britains-homes-11363977137042 ↩

  3. Cellan-Jones, Rory (23 April 2012). "The Spectrum, the Pi - and the coding backlash". BBC News. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2021. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-17811925 ↩

  4. Moran, Joe (28 August 2015). "Typewriter, you're fired! How writers learned to love the computer". The Guardian. p. 20. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150906135613/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/aug/28/how-amstrad-word-processor-encouraged-writers-use-computers ↩

  5. Crookes, David (10 March 2016). "Fancy a Fresh Slice of Pi?". Micro Mart (1404). Dennis Publishing: 8–10, 12, 14, 16 – via the Internet Archive. ProQuest 1787168972. https://archive.org/details/Micro-Mart ↩

  6. Oliver, Phillip (26 October 2017). "ZX Spectrum: An enduring legacy". GamesIndustry.biz. Brighton: Gamer Network. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20221104151132/https://www.gamesindustry.biz/zx-spectrum-an-enduring-legacy ↩

  7. Dale 1985, p. 21. - Dale, Rodney (1985). The Sinclair Story. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1901-2. ↩

  8. Bailey, Elizabeth (12 April 1981). "Inventor; trying again in consumer electronics". The New York Times. New York City. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230516222227/https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/12/business/inventor-trying-again-in-consumer-electronics.html ↩

  9. Leigh 2022, pp. 80–81. - Leigh, Peter (2022). Nostalgia Nerd's Gadgets, Gizmos & Gimmicks: A Potted History of Personal Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-889-6. ↩

  10. Kean 1985b, p. 126. - Kean, Roger (May 1985). "The Sinclair Story: Part Two". Crash (16). Ludlow: Newsfield Publications Ltd. Retrieved 9 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/crash-magazine-16/page/n125/mode/2up ↩

  11. Dale 1985, pp. 77–78. - Dale, Rodney (1985). The Sinclair Story. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1901-2. ↩

  12. Bailey, Elizabeth (12 April 1981). "Inventor; trying again in consumer electronics". The New York Times. New York City. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230516222227/https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/12/business/inventor-trying-again-in-consumer-electronics.html ↩

  13. "Sir Clive Sinclair obituary". The Times. London. 1 October 2023. Archived from the original on 16 September 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2023. https://www.thetimes.com/uk/obituaries/article/sir-clive-sinclair-obituary-jjgjq296k ↩

  14. Dale 1985, p. 89. - Dale, Rodney (1985). The Sinclair Story. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1901-2. ↩

  15. Dale 1985, p. 91. - Dale, Rodney (1985). The Sinclair Story. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1901-2. ↩

  16. Bailey, Elizabeth (12 April 1981). "Inventor; trying again in consumer electronics". The New York Times. New York City. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230516222227/https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/12/business/inventor-trying-again-in-consumer-electronics.html ↩

  17. Laurie 1981, p. 113. - Laurie, Peter (April 1981). "ZX80 Line-Up". Practical Computing. 4 (4). Sutton: IPC Electrical Press Ltd. https://archive.org/details/PracticalComputing1981April04/mode/2up ↩

  18. Hayes 1981, p. 119. - Hayes, Brian (January 1981). "The first personal computer for under $200". Byte Magazine. Vol. 6, no. 1. New Hampshire: Byte Publications. Retrieved 1 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1981-01/1981_01_BYTE_06-01_Hand-held_Computers?view=theater#page/n119/mode/2up ↩

  19. Lorenz, Christopher (15 April 1982). "The precarious balance between research, fashion and price". Financial Times. London. p. 18. /wiki/Financial_Times ↩

  20. "Sinclair ZX8". Sinclair Research. Archived from the original on 14 December 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20141214131822/http://www.sinclairzx.com/about-us.html#12 ↩

  21. Clarke 1982, p. 390. - Clarke, Robin (11 February 1982). "Microcomputers: No room at the inn". New Scientist. 93 (1292). London. ↩

  22. Engineering Today 1982, pp. 20–23. - "Sinclair's tinkering talent". Engineering Today. London. 22 February 1982. pp. 20–23. ↩

  23. Hayman 1982, p. 23. - Hayman, Martin (July 1982). "Interview with Clive Sinclair". Practical Computing. 5 (7). Sutton, London: IPC Magazines Ltd. ↩

  24. Brown, Nathan (23 April 2012). "The making of the ZX Spectrum". Edge. Bath: Future plc. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20120425035159/http://www.edge-online.com/features/making-zx-spectrum/ ↩

  25. Leigh 2018, p. 68. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  26. Adams 1982, p. 14. - Adams, Stephen (July 1982). "Taking the lid off the Spectrum". Sinclair User (4). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-004/page/n13/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  27. Brown, Nathan (23 April 2012). "The making of the ZX Spectrum". Edge. Bath: Future plc. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20120425035159/http://www.edge-online.com/features/making-zx-spectrum/ ↩

  28. Speed, Richard (22 April 2022). "Sinclair's 8-bit home computer, ZX Spectrum, turns 40". The Register. London: Situation Publishing. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230526232039/https://www.theregister.com/2022/04/22/spectrum_at_40/ ↩

  29. Gore 1982, p. 38. - Gore, Brendan (July 1982). "The Engineer Behind The Spectrum". Your Computer. London. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-07/page/n37/mode/2up ↩

  30. Gore 1982, p. 38. - Gore, Brendan (July 1982). "The Engineer Behind The Spectrum". Your Computer. London. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-07/page/n37/mode/2up ↩

  31. Gore 1982, pp. 38–39. - Gore, Brendan (July 1982). "The Engineer Behind The Spectrum". Your Computer. London. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-07/page/n37/mode/2up ↩

  32. Speed, Richard (22 April 2022). "Sinclair's 8-bit home computer, ZX Spectrum, turns 40". The Register. London: Situation Publishing. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230526232039/https://www.theregister.com/2022/04/22/spectrum_at_40/ ↩

  33. Adams 1982, p. 14. - Adams, Stephen (July 1982). "Taking the lid off the Spectrum". Sinclair User (4). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-004/page/n13/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  34. Adamson & Kennedy 1986, pp. 84–88. - Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-008774-1. ↩

  35. Brown, Nathan (23 April 2012). "The making of the ZX Spectrum". Edge. Bath: Future plc. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20120425035159/http://www.edge-online.com/features/making-zx-spectrum/ ↩

  36. Smith, Tony (23 April 2012). "Happy 30th Birthday, Sinclair ZX Spectrum". The Register. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. https://www.theregister.com/2012/04/23/retro_week_sinclair_zx_spectrum_at_30?page=1 ↩

  37. Kelion, Leo (19 April 2012). "ZX Spectrum's chief designers reunited 30 years on". BBC News. London: BBC. Archived from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230418150809/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-17776666 ↩

  38. Smith, Tony (23 April 2012). "Happy 30th Birthday, Sinclair ZX Spectrum". The Register. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. https://www.theregister.com/2012/04/23/retro_week_sinclair_zx_spectrum_at_30?page=1 ↩

  39. "How the Spectrum began a revolution". BBC. 23 April 2007. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180152/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6572711.stm ↩

  40. "Sinclair Spectrum designer Rick Dickinson dies in US". BBC News. London: BBC. 26 April 2018. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230930220700/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-43907248 ↩

  41. "Alpia drawing board - Science Museum Group Collection". London: The Science Museum Group. Archived from the original on 29 November 2022. Retrieved 9 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20221129031620/https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co8087251/alpia-drawing-board-used-by-rick-dickinson-to-des-drawing-board ↩

  42. Gore 1982, p. 39. - Gore, Brendan (July 1982). "The Engineer Behind The Spectrum". Your Computer. London. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-07/page/n37/mode/2up ↩

  43. Gore 1982, p. 39. - Gore, Brendan (July 1982). "The Engineer Behind The Spectrum". Your Computer. London. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-07/page/n37/mode/2up ↩

  44. Gore 1982, p. 39. - Gore, Brendan (July 1982). "The Engineer Behind The Spectrum". Your Computer. London. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-07/page/n37/mode/2up ↩

  45. Gore 1982, p. 39. - Gore, Brendan (July 1982). "The Engineer Behind The Spectrum". Your Computer. London. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-07/page/n37/mode/2up ↩

  46. Gore 1982, p. 39. - Gore, Brendan (July 1982). "The Engineer Behind The Spectrum". Your Computer. London. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-07/page/n37/mode/2up ↩

  47. Day, Peter (9 September 2014). "How Dundee became a computer games centre". BBC News. London. Archived from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-29122873 ↩

  48. "ZX Spectrum Computer and associated game cassettes". The McManus. Dundee: Dundee Art Gallery. 20 January 2012. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231003134524/https://www.themcmanus-dundee.gov.uk/content/collections/database/zx-spectrum-computer-and-associated-game-cassettes ↩

  49. Adamson & Kennedy 1986, p. 94. - Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-008774-1. ↩

  50. Smith, Tony (23 April 2012). "Happy 30th Birthday, Sinclair ZX Spectrum". The Register. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. https://www.theregister.com/2012/04/23/retro_week_sinclair_zx_spectrum_at_30?page=1 ↩

  51. Warman, Matt (23 April 2012). "ZX Spectrum at 30: the computer that started a revolution". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2015. It was the computer that introduced a generation to video gaming, helped to earn Sir Clive Sinclair a knighthood and even made programming cool: the ZX Spectrum has a lot to answer for. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/9220468/ZX-Spectrum-at-30-the-computer-that-started-a-revolution.html ↩

  52. "ZX Spectrum profile". Retro Gamer. Bath: Future plc. 4 December 2013. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20221215164112/https://www.retrogamer.net/profiles/hardware/zx-spectrum-hardware-profile/ ↩

  53. Adams 1982, p. 52. - Adams, Stephen (July 1982). "Taking the lid off the Spectrum". Sinclair User (4). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-004/page/n13/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  54. Clark 1982, p. 4. - Clark, Nigel (June 1982). "Sinclair User Magazine Issue 003". Sinclair User (3). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-003/page/n3/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  55. Leigh 2018, p. 69. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  56. Clark 1982, p. 14. - Clark, Nigel (June 1982). "Sinclair User Magazine Issue 003". Sinclair User (3). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-003/page/n3/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  57. Kean 1985b, p. 127. - Kean, Roger (May 1985). "The Sinclair Story: Part Two". Crash (16). Ludlow: Newsfield Publications Ltd. Retrieved 9 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/crash-magazine-16/page/n125/mode/2up ↩

  58. Smith, Tony (23 April 2012). "Happy 30th Birthday, Sinclair ZX Spectrum". The Register. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. https://www.theregister.com/2012/04/23/retro_week_sinclair_zx_spectrum_at_30?page=1 ↩

  59. "Sir Clive Sinclair, inventor of an early pocket calculator who transformed the home-computing market but came unstuck with the infamous C5 – obituary". London: The Telegraph. 16 September 2021. Archived from the original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20221118063318/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/obituaries/2021/09/16/sir-clive-sinclair-inventor-early-pocket-calculator-transformed/ ↩

  60. Kelion, Leo (2 December 2014). "Syntax era: Sir Clive Sinclair's ZX Spectrum revolution". BBC News. Archived from the original on 7 December 2014. Retrieved 8 December 2014. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-30333671 ↩

  61. Leigh 2018, p. 68. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  62. Clark 1982, p. 43. - Clark, Nigel (June 1982). "Sinclair User Magazine Issue 003". Sinclair User (3). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-003/page/n3/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  63. Clark 1982, p. 44. - Clark, Nigel (June 1982). "Sinclair User Magazine Issue 003". Sinclair User (3). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-003/page/n3/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  64. Leigh 2018, p. 68. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  65. Johnston 1982, p. 4. - Johnston, Mike (October 1982). "Spectrum excuses run out". Sinclair User (7). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-007/page/n3/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  66. Pratt 1982a, p. 4. - Pratt, Terry (June 1982). "Sinclair's new baby". Computer and Video Games (8). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/cvg-magazine-008/page/n3/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  67. Smith, Tony (23 April 2012). "Happy 30th Birthday, Sinclair ZX Spectrum". The Register. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. https://www.theregister.com/2012/04/23/retro_week_sinclair_zx_spectrum_at_30?page=1 ↩

  68. Johnston 1982, p. 4. - Johnston, Mike (October 1982). "Spectrum excuses run out". Sinclair User (7). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-007/page/n3/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  69. Leigh 2018, p. 70. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  70. Adamson & Kennedy 1986, p. 256. - Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-008774-1. ↩

  71. Popular Computing Weekly 1983a, p. 1. - "Spectrum sales top 200,000". Popular Computing Weekly. 2 (7). Bath: Future plc. 17 February 1983. https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-weekly-1983-02-17 ↩

  72. Backhurst 1983b, p. 14. - Backhurst, Nigel (10 May 1983b). "Spectrums 'to double'". Home Computing Weekly (10). London: Argus Specialist Publications. https://archive.org/details/home-computing-weekly-010/page/n13/mode/2up ↩

  73. Popular Computing Weekly 1983c, p. 1. - "Spectrum tops 1/2 million mark". Popular Computing Weekly. 2 (31). Bath: Future plc. 4 August 1983. https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-weekly-1983-08-04 ↩

  74. Popular Computing Weekly 1983d, p. 5. - "1m Spectrums". Popular Computing Weekly. 2 (51). Bath: Future plc. 22 December 1983. https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-weekly-1983-12-22/page/n3/mode/2up ↩

  75. Advertisement (December 1983). "Now from Timex...a powerful new computer". BYTE. p. 281. Retrieved 20 October 2013. https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-12/1983_12_BYTE_08-12_Easy_Software#page/n281/mode/2up ↩

  76. Smith, Tony (23 April 2012). "Happy 30th Birthday, Sinclair ZX Spectrum". The Register. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. https://www.theregister.com/2012/04/23/retro_week_sinclair_zx_spectrum_at_30?page=1 ↩

  77. Bradbeer 1983, p. 83. - Bradbeer, Robin (March 1983). "Timex upgrades Spectrum". Sinclair User. Vol. 12. London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023 – via Internet Archive. https://archive.org/stream/sinclair-user-magazine-012/SinclairUser_012_Mar_1983#page/n81/mode/2up ↩

  78. "Timex Sinclair 2068 - RTO - Computer - Computing History". The Centre for Computing History. Archived from the original on 23 April 2024. Retrieved 23 April 2024. https://www.computinghistory.org.uk/det/62128/Timex-Sinclair-2068-RTO/ ↩

  79. Adamson & Kennedy 1986, p. 143. - Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-008774-1. ↩

  80. Segre 1983, p. 18. - Segre, Nicole (November 1983). "Sinclair profit is more than £14m". Sinclair User (20). London: EMAP. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-020/page/n17/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  81. Adamson & Kennedy 1986, p. 98. - Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-008774-1. ↩

  82. Adamson & Kennedy 1986, p. 97. - Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-008774-1. ↩

  83. Adamson & Kennedy 1986, p. 114. - Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-008774-1. ↩

  84. "Sir Clive Sinclair: Tireless inventor ahead of his time". BBC News. London. 16 September 2021. Archived from the original on 18 May 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230518164253/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-29985976 ↩

  85. Goodenough, Jan (March 2000). "Biography of Sir Clive Sinclair". British Mensa. Archived from the original on 2 February 2008. Retrieved 25 September 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20080202182911/http://www.mensa.org.uk/cgi-bin/item.cgi?ap=1&id=279 ↩

  86. Bates, Stephen (17 September 2021). "Sir Clive Sinclair obituary". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032914/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/sep/17/sir-clive-sinclair ↩

  87. Leigh 2018, p. 104. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  88. Oxford, Nadia (18 January 2012). "Ten Facts about the Great Video Game Crash of '83". IGN. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2020. https://www.ign.com/articles/2011/09/21/ten-facts-about-the-great-video-game-crash-of-83 ↩

  89. Leigh, Peter (21 April 2017). "ZX Spectrum Story: Celebrating 35 Years of the Speccy". Nostalgia Nerd. Archived from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230804184058/https://www.nostalgianerd.com/zx-spectrum-story/ ↩

  90. His Majesty's Stationery Office 1995, pp. 66, 68. - "Market size and market shares". Video Games: A Report on the Supply of Video Games in the UK. United Kingdom: Monopolies and Mergers Commission (MMC), His Majesty's Stationery Office. April 1995. ISBN 978-0-10-127812-6. ↩

  91. Baker, Chris (6 August 2010). "Sinclair ZX80 and the Dawn of 'Surreal' U.K. Game Industry". Wired. Archived from the original on 26 July 2019. Retrieved 30 September 2019. https://www.wired.com/2010/06/sinclair-zx80/ ↩

  92. Mardsen, Rhordi (25 January 2015). "Geeks Who Rocked The World: Documentary Looks Back At Origins Of The Computer-games Industry". The Independent. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 3 October 2019. https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/features/geeks-who-rocked-the-world-documentary-looks-back-at-origins-of-the-computer-games-industry-9997037.html ↩

  93. "Hollis pulls out of Sinclair offer". The New York Times. New York City. 10 August 1985. p. 32. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230516175942/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/08/10/business/hollis-pulls-out-of-sinclair-offer.html ↩

  94. Bourne 1985a, p. 7. - Bourne, Chris (March 1985). "Sinclair declares Spectrum price war". Sinclair User (36). London: EMAP. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-036/page/n5/mode/2up ↩

  95. "The 80s home computer boom (video)". BBC Radio 4. London: BBC. 22 September 2015. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 24 October 2023. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0336d72 ↩

  96. Bourne 1985a, p. 7. - Bourne, Chris (March 1985). "Sinclair declares Spectrum price war". Sinclair User (36). London: EMAP. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-036/page/n5/mode/2up ↩

  97. Bourne 1985a, p. 7. - Bourne, Chris (March 1985). "Sinclair declares Spectrum price war". Sinclair User (36). London: EMAP. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-036/page/n5/mode/2up ↩

  98. Denham 1984a, p. 4. - Denham, Sue (March 1984). "The complete quantum leap benchtest". Your Spectrum (2). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/ql-user/QL%20User%201984-01/page/n5/mode/2up ↩

  99. Sawford 1984, p. 47. - Sawford, Bruce (July 1984). "QL news". Your Sinclair (5). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/your-spectrum-magazine-05/page/n47/mode/2up?q=only+four+months+late ↩

  100. Munford 1984, p. 72. - Munford, Roger (September 1984). "Lunch with Sir Clive". Your Spectrum (7). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/your-spectrum-magazine-07/page/n73/mode/2up ↩

  101. "Timex/Sinclair history". ZQAOnline. Archived from the original on 17 July 2006. Retrieved 15 December 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060717042421/http://www.zqaonline.com/Events/History.aspx ↩

  102. Smith, Tony. "Sinclair's 1984 big shot at business: The QL is 30 years old". The Register. London: Situation Publishing. Archived from the original on 12 December 2022. Retrieved 26 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20221212112255/https://www.theregister.com/2014/01/12/archaeologic_sinclair_ql/?page=2 ↩

  103. "Kept in the Dark". CRASH. No. 22. November 1985. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2006. http://www.crashonline.org.uk/22/editrl.htm ↩

  104. "Sinclair ZX Spectrum 128". The Centre for Computing History. Archived from the original on 21 August 2010. Retrieved 4 December 2009. http://www.computinghistory.org.uk/cgi-bin/sitewise.pl?act=det&p=2584 ↩

  105. Dale 1985, p. 151. - Dale, Rodney (1985). The Sinclair Story. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1901-2. ↩

  106. Fraser 1986, p. 14. - Fraser, John (9 April 1986). "The rise and fall of a British electronics wizard". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. ↩

  107. "C5 advert claims rejected". The Times. London: News Corp. 17 July 1985. p. 3. /wiki/The_Times ↩

  108. "Sinclair to Sell British Unit". The New York Times. Associated Press. 18 June 1985. Archived from the original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2009. https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/18/business/sinclair-to-sell-british-unit.html ↩

  109. "Hollis pulls out of Sinclair offer". The New York Times. New York City. 10 August 1985. p. 32. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230516175942/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/08/10/business/hollis-pulls-out-of-sinclair-offer.html ↩

  110. Kidd 1986, p. 7. - Kidd, Graham (May 1986). "Amstrad has bought Sinclair Research". CRASH (28). Bath: Future plc. Archived from the original on 11 November 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023. https://www.crashonline.org.uk/28/editrl.htm ↩

  111. Scolding 1986, p. 7. - Scolding, Bill (May 1986). "Amstrad axes QL in Sinclair sell out". Sinclair User (50). Bath: Future plc: 7. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-050/page/n5/mode/2up ↩

  112. Phillips 1986, p. 47. - Phillips, Max (November 1986). "ZX Spectrum +2". Your Sinclair (11). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/your-sinclair-11/page/n49/mode/2up ↩

  113. Feder, Barnaby (19 May 1985). "Inventing the Future". The New York Times. New York City. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20230516193313/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/05/19/magazine/inventing-the-future.html ↩

  114. Leigh 2018, p. 70. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  115. "How the Spectrum began a revolution". BBC. 23 April 2007. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180152/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6572711.stm ↩

  116. Leigh 2018, p. 70. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  117. Vickers, Steven (1982). "Introduction". Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming. Sinclair Research Ltd. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap1.html ↩

  118. Vickers, Steven (1982). "Colours". Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming. Sinclair Research Ltd. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap16.html ↩

  119. EP patent 0107687, Richard Francis Altwasser, "Display for a computer", issued 6 July 1988, assigned to Sinclair Research Ltd https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=EP0107687 ↩

  120. Vickers, Steven (1982). "Colours". Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming. Sinclair Research Ltd. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap16.html ↩

  121. "Face off – ZX Spectrum vs Commodore 64". Eurogamer. Bath: Future plc. 29 April 2012. Archived from the original on 4 September 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2012. http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry-face-off-zx-spectrum-vs-commodore-64 ↩

  122. Wilkins 2015b, p. 16. - Wilkins, Chris (2015). The Story of the ZX Spectrum in Pixels: Volume 2. Kenilworth: Retro Fusion Books. ISBN 978-0-9931315-2-3. ↩

  123. "PortFE". 16K / 48K ZX Spectrum Reference. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2023. https://worldofspectrum.org/faq/reference/48kreference.htm#PortFE ↩

  124. Wilkins 2015a, p. 16. - Wilkins, Chris (2015). The Story of the ZX Spectrum in Pixels: Volume 1. Kenilworth: Retro Fusion Books. ISBN 978-0-9931315-0-9. ↩

  125. Wilkins 2015a, p. 17. - Wilkins, Chris (2015). The Story of the ZX Spectrum in Pixels: Volume 1. Kenilworth: Retro Fusion Books. ISBN 978-0-9931315-0-9. ↩

  126. Vickers, Steven. "BEEP". Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming. Sinclair Research Ltd. Archived from the original on 13 November 2014. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap19.html ↩

  127. Kean 1985b, p. 127. - Kean, Roger (May 1985). "The Sinclair Story: Part Two". Crash (16). Ludlow: Newsfield Publications Ltd. Retrieved 9 October 2023. https://archive.org/details/crash-magazine-16/page/n125/mode/2up ↩

  128. Nash 1984, p. 217. - Nash, John (1984). Effective scientific problem solving with small computers. Reston: Reston Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-8359-1596-0. https://archive.org/details/effectivescienti0000nash/page/216/mode/2up?q=timex+sinclair ↩

  129. Vickers, Steven (1982). "Basic programming concepts". Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming. Sinclair Research Ltd. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 19 September 2006. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap2.html ↩

  130. "Tape Data Storage". Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2012. http://www.myprius.co.za/tape_storage.htm ↩

  131. "The High Street Spectrum". ZX Computing: 43. February 1983. Archived from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2016. https://archive.org/details/ZX-computing-1983-02 ↩

  132. Gilbert 1983a, p. 13. - Gilbert, John (June 1983). "Spectrum prices are slashed". Sinclair User (15). London: EMAP. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-015/page/n11/mode/2up ↩

  133. Goodwin, Simon (September 1984). "Suddenly, it's the 64K Spectrum!". Your Spectrum (7): 33–34. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2015. So the first three issues of the Spectrum used a combination of eight 16K chips and eight 32K ones. The latest machines depart from that combination, but Sinclair Research has been very quiet about the alteration. http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/yr07/yr07_33.htm ↩

  134. Leigh 2018, p. 68. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  135. Owen, Chris (6 September 2003). "Spectrum 48K Versions". Planet Sinclair. Archived from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015. It is often possible to determine which version of the Spectrum 16/48K one has without opening the case, as there are a number of clues... http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/zxspectrum/spec48versions.htm ↩

  136. Thorn (EMI) Datatech Ltd (March 1984). Servicing Manual For ZX Spectrum (PDF). Sinclair Research Ltd. p. 4.3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019. https://k1.spdns.de/Vintage/Sinclair/82/Sinclair%20ZX%20Spectrum/Repair/ZX%20Spectrum%20Service%20Manual%20(OCRed).pdf ↩

  137. "ZX Spectrum Models". Spectrum for Everyone. Archived from the original on 9 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021. https://spectrumforeveryone.com/technical/zx-spectrum-models/ ↩

  138. "Spectrum For Everyone Serial DB". Spectrum For Everyone Serial DB. Archived from the original on 9 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021. https://serials.spectrumforeveryone.com/ ↩

  139. Popular Computing Weekly 1983b, p. 6. - "Urgent recall notice". Popular Computing Weekly. 2 (9). Bath: Future plc. 3 March 1983. https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-weekly-1983-03-03/page/n5/mode/2up ↩

  140. Popular Computing Weekly 1983b, p. 6. - "Urgent recall notice". Popular Computing Weekly. 2 (9). Bath: Future plc. 3 March 1983. https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-weekly-1983-03-03/page/n5/mode/2up ↩

  141. Backhurst 1983a, p. 5. - Backhurst, Nigel (15 March 1983a). "Big response to call back". Home Computing Weekly (2). London: Argus Specialist Publications. https://archive.org/details/home-computing-weekly-002/page/n3/mode/2up ↩

  142. Denham 1984b, p. 104. - Denham, Sue (December 1984). "The secret that was Spectrum+". Your Spectrum (10). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/your-spectrum-magazine-10/page/n105/mode/2up ↩

  143. "News: New Spectrum launch". Sinclair User (33): 11. December 1984. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 19 August 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060924094040/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/033/news.htm ↩

  144. "Spectrum surprise!". Home Computing Weekly. No. 85. Argus Specialist Publications. 23 October 1984. p. 1. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20200924170531/https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=2651&page=1 ↩

  145. Goodwin, Simon (December 1987). "Tech Tips – +3 Faults". Crash. No. 48. p. 145. Retrieved 24 April 2024. https://archive.org/details/Crash_Magazine_048b/page/144 ↩

  146. Denham 1984b, p. 104. - Denham, Sue (December 1984). "The secret that was Spectrum+". Your Spectrum (10). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/your-spectrum-magazine-10/page/n105/mode/2up ↩

  147. Bourne 1985a, p. 7. - Bourne, Chris (March 1985). "Sinclair declares Spectrum price war". Sinclair User (36). London: EMAP. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-036/page/n5/mode/2up ↩

  148. Frey 1985, p. 5. - Frey, Franco (November 1985). "Kept in the dark". Crash (22). Ludlow: Newsfield Publications Ltd. https://archive.org/details/Crash_Magazine_026/page/12/mode/2up ↩

  149. Bourne 1985b, p. 5. - Bourne, Chris (November 1985). "Sinclair declares Spectrum price war". Sinclair User (44). London: EMAP. https://archive.org/details/Sinclair_User_044/page/4/mode/2up ↩

  150. Frey 1986, p. 11. - Frey, Franco (March 1986). "Launch of the 128". Crash (26). Ludlow: Newsfield Publications Ltd. https://archive.org/details/crash-magazine-22/page/n5/mode/2up ↩

  151. (in Spanish) Ministerio de Economía y Hacienda (BOE 211 de 3 September 1985), Real Decreto 1558/1985, de 28 de agosto, por el que se aclara el alcance del mínimo específico introducido en la subpartida 84.53.B.II del Arancel de Aduanas, por el Real Decreto 1215/1985 Archived 30 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Rango: Real Decreto, Páginas: 27743 – 27744, Referencia: 1985/18847. http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1985-18847 ↩

  152. (in Spanish) Ministerio de Industria y Energía (BOE 179 de 27 July 1985), Real Decreto 1250/1985, de 19 de junio, por el que se establece la sujeción a especificaciones técnicas de los terminales de pantalla con teclado, periféricos para entrada y representación de información en equipo de proceso de datos Archived 30 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Rango: Real Decreto, Páginas: 23840–23841, Referencia: 1985/15611. http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1985-15611 ↩

  153. "Murata 5v Switching Regulator (for Toastrack models)". Retro Revival Shop. Archived from the original on 13 November 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2021. http://retrorevivalshop.co.uk/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=7&products_id=60 ↩

  154. Wilkins 2015a, p. 17. - Wilkins, Chris (2015). The Story of the ZX Spectrum in Pixels: Volume 1. Kenilworth: Retro Fusion Books. ISBN 978-0-9931315-0-9. ↩

  155. "Clive discovers games – at last". Sinclair User (49): 53. April 1985. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060924093908/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/049/128lnch.htm ↩

  156. Leigh, Peter (21 April 2017). "ZX Spectrum Story: Celebrating 35 Years of the Speccy". Nostalgia Nerd. Archived from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230804184058/https://www.nostalgianerd.com/zx-spectrum-story/ ↩

  157. "World of Spectrum – Documentation – ZX Spectrum 128 Manual Page 9". Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2016. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrum128Manual/sp128p09.html ↩

  158. Phillips 1986, p. 47. - Phillips, Max (November 1986). "ZX Spectrum +2". Your Sinclair (11). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/your-sinclair-11/page/n49/mode/2up ↩

  159. Goodwin, Simon (December 1987). "Tech Tips – +3 Faults". Crash. No. 48. p. 145. Retrieved 24 April 2024. https://archive.org/details/Crash_Magazine_048b/page/144 ↩

  160. South, Phil (July 1987). "It's here... the Spectrum +3". Your Sinclair (17): 22–23. Archived from the original on 9 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=YourSinclair/Issue19/Pages/YourSinclair1900022.jpg ↩

  161. Amstrad (November 1987). "The new Sinclair has one big disk advantage". Sinclair User (68): 2–3. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008. /wiki/Amstrad ↩

  162. "Power supply for Spectrum 128, +2A, +3". York Distribution Limited. Archived from the original on 29 August 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20160829065203/http://www.yorkdistribution.co.uk/acatalog/Power-supply-for-Spectrum-128---2A---3-PS_SPE3.html ↩

  163. Goodwin, Simon (December 1987). "Tech Tips – +3 Faults". Crash. No. 48. p. 145. Retrieved 24 April 2024. https://archive.org/details/Crash_Magazine_048b/page/144 ↩

  164. "Amstrad Kills Plus 3". Crash. No. 82. Newsfield. November 1990. Retrieved 6 March 2018. https://archive.org/stream/crash-magazine-82/Crash_82_Nov_1990#page/n19/mode/2up ↩

  165. "Death Of The +3". Your Sinclair. No. 60. Future Publishing. December 1990. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2018. https://archive.org/stream/your-sinclair-60/YourSinclair_60_Dec_1990#page/n9/mode/2up ↩

  166. "Dishy New Spectrum in Sex Scandal". Crash. No. 26. Newsfield. 26 January 1989. p. 9. Retrieved 26 November 2022.[permanent dead link] https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=1028&page=7 ↩

  167. "Dishy New Spectrum in Sex Scandal". Crash. No. 26. Newsfield. 26 January 1989. p. 9. Retrieved 26 November 2022.[permanent dead link] https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=1028&page=7 ↩

  168. "Amstrad again". New Computer Express. No. 5. Future Publishing. 10 December 1988. p. 55. Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20200808064929/https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=4777&page=55 ↩

  169. "Dishy New Spectrum in Sex Scandal". Crash. No. 26. Newsfield. 26 January 1989. p. 9. Retrieved 26 November 2022.[permanent dead link] https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=1028&page=7 ↩

  170. "Amstrad again". New Computer Express. No. 5. Future Publishing. 10 December 1988. p. 55. Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20200808064929/https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=4777&page=55 ↩

  171. Spectrum +2B/+3B Service Manual. AMSTRAD. ↩

  172. "Spex – Sounding Out". New Computer Express. No. 44. Future Publishing. 9 September 1989. p. 54. Retrieved 26 November 2022.[permanent dead link] https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=4816&page=54 ↩

  173. "How the Spectrum began a revolution". BBC. 23 April 2007. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180152/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6572711.stm ↩

  174. "Timex Computer 2068 specifications". Timex Computer World. Archived from the original on 13 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2023. https://timex.comboios.info/tc2068.html ↩

  175. "Timex Computer 2048 specifications". Timex Computer World. Archived from the original on 13 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2023. https://timex.comboios.info/tc2048.html ↩

  176. "Timex Computer 2068 Emulator Cartridge specs". World of Spectrum. Archived from the original on 28 August 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20180828152540/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/infoseekid.cgi?id=1000935 ↩

  177. "Timex command cartridges". LoadZX. Archived from the original on 25 March 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024. https://loadzx.com/timexcomputerworld/timex-cartridge/ ↩

  178. "Timex Computer 2048 overview". Old Computers. Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2017. http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st=1&c=935 ↩

  179. "Deci Bells Electronics Limited Company Profile". The Economic Times of India. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2022. http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20190508200151/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/company/ ↩

  180. "deciBells dB Spectrum+ – Sinclair Collection". Archived from the original on 6 October 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2022. https://www.sinclaircollection.site/?page_id=455 ↩

  181. "dB Spectrum+ at Spectrum Computing - Sinclair ZX Spectrum games, software and hardware". Spectrum Computing. Retrieved 18 December 2022. https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/entry/1000517/Hardware/dB_Spectrum ↩

  182. "The innovative legacy of Clive Sinclair". The Week. Archived from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022. https://www.theweek.in/news/sci-tech/2021/09/18/the-innovative-legacy-of-clive-sinclair.html ↩

  183. "Tirlochan Singh". isourcingindia. Archived from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022. https://isourcingindia.com/team/tirlochan-singh/ ↩

  184. Owen, Chris. "Clones and variants". Planet Sinclair. Archived from the original on 25 September 2006. Retrieved 26 October 2006. http://www.nvg.org/sinclair/computers/clones/clones.htm ↩

  185. Slabihoud, Stephan (2000). "The PCB-Gallery - Didaktik Gamma". 8bit-museum.de. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2023. https://www.8bit-museum.de/pcb/index.htm?group=35&id=185 ↩

  186. Penix-Tadsen 2019, p. 14-16. - Penix-Tadsen, Phillip (2019). Video Games and the Global South. New York City: Lulu. ISBN 978-0-359-64139-0. Archived from the original on 16 May 2024. Retrieved 15 May 2024. https://books.google.com/books?id=8PDCDwAAQBAJ ↩

  187. Zangoni, Néstor (7 January 2005). "CZERWENY Series (CZ) Argentina (Z80A)". MicroHobby Web independiente para usuarios de ordenadores Sinclair y compatibles (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 5 April 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2023. https://microhobby.speccy.cz/290803/ord/tadeo.htm ↩

  188. Leigh 2018, p. 140. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  189. Alway, Robin. "So what really has happened to the SAM Coupé?". Your Sinclair (56): 40. Archived from the original on 15 March 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20130315073401/http://www.ysrnry.co.uk/articles/samsurgeon0890.htm ↩

  190. Leigh 2018, p. 142. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  191. Owen, Chris. "ZX Printer". Planet Sinclair. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 24 August 2006. http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/peripherals/zxprinter.htm ↩

  192. Adamson & Kennedy 1986, p. 107. - Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-008774-1. ↩

  193. "News: Some surprises in the Microdrive". Sinclair User (18): 15. September 1983. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060924093253/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/018/news.htm ↩

  194. Adams, Stephen (October 1983). "Hardware World: Spectrum receives its biggest improvement". Sinclair User (19): 27–29. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060924101328/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/019/hardwre.htm ↩

  195. "Hardware World: Sinclair cartridges may be out of step". Sinclair User (21): 35. December 1983. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060924100919/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/021/hardwre.htm ↩

  196. Frey, Franco (May 1984). "Epicventuring and Multiplayer Networking". CRASH (4): 46–47. Archived from the original on 16 August 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2007. http://www.crashonline.org.uk/04/microdv.htm ↩

  197. Foot, Cathy (November 1985). "Microdrive revisited". CRASH (22): 8. Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 10 August 2006. http://www.crashonline.org.uk/22/opinion.htm ↩

  198. Wilkins 2015a, p. 14. - Wilkins, Chris (2015). The Story of the ZX Spectrum in Pixels: Volume 1. Kenilworth: Retro Fusion Books. ISBN 978-0-9931315-0-9. ↩

  199. "Hardware World: Clear speech from Currah module". Sinclair User (21): 40. December 1983. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060924100919/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/021/hardwre.htm ↩

  200. Frey, Franco (February 1987). "Tech Niche: Videoface to Face". CRASH (37): 86–87. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue37/Pages/Crash3700086.jpg ↩

  201. Bates, Jon (April 1986). "Tech Niche: SpecDrum". CRASH (27): 100. Archived from the original on 15 August 2007. Retrieved 9 August 2007. http://www.crashonline.org.uk/27/specdrum.htm ↩

  202. Frey, Franco (March 1986). "Tech Niche: Multifaceted device". CRASH (36): 86. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue26/Pages/Crash2600086.jpg ↩

  203. "How the Spectrum began a revolution". BBC. 23 April 2007. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180152/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6572711.stm ↩

  204. "Hardware World: Emperor Looks Good". Sinclair User (31): 31. October 1984. Archived from the original on 12 December 2007. Retrieved 30 October 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20071212133608/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/031/hardwre.htm ↩

  205. "DK'Tronics Light Pen". spectrumcomputing.co.uk. 1983. Retrieved 3 June 2023.[permanent dead link] https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/entry/1000124/Hardware/DKTronics_Light_Pen ↩

  206. South 1984, p. 61. - South, Phil (November 1984). "Watford plugs the gap". Your Spectrum (9). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/your-spectrum-magazine-09/page/n62/mode/1up?view=theater ↩

  207. Leigh 2018, p. 70. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  208. Frey, Franco (March 1987). "Tech Niche: Pure Gospel". CRASH (38): 82–83. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue38/Pages/Crash3800082.jpg ↩

  209. "Prism VTX 5000". World of Spectrum. Home Computer Advanced Course. 1984. Archived from the original on 5 January 2013. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/hardware/feat24.html ↩

  210. Leigh 2018, p. 68. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  211. Vickers, Steven; Bradbeer, Robin (1982). "6. Using the cassette recorder". Sinclair ZX Spectrum: Introduction. Sinclair Research Ltd. p. 21. Archived from the original on 6 August 2007. Retrieved 10 August 2007. /wiki/Steve_Vickers_(academia) ↩

  212. Leigh 2018, p. 69. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  213. Grimwood, Jim. "The Type Fantastic". Archived from the original on 8 July 2008. Retrieved 16 September 2008. http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/type-ins/typehome.htm ↩

  214. van der Heide, Martijn. "Books". World of Spectrum. Archived from the original on 28 September 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2008. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/books.html ↩

  215. Freeman, Will (7 July 2021). "Spin machines: the curious history of video games on vinyl". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 25 January 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230125135756/https://www.theguardian.com/games/2021/jul/07/video-games-on-vinyl-flexi-discs-zx-spectrum ↩

  216. Gilbert 1983b, p. 14. - Gilbert, John (July 1983). "Programs program". Sinclair User (16). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/Sinclair_User_016/page/14/mode/2up?q=radio ↩

  217. Pearce, Nick (October–November 1982). "Zap! Pow! Boom!". ZX Computing: 75. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8210/Pages/ZXComputing821000075.jpg ↩

  218. Wetherill 1984, p. 126. - Wetherill, Steven (June 1984). "Tasword Two: The Word Processor". Crash (5). Bath: Future plc. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue05/Pages/Crash0500126.jpg ↩

  219. Pearce, Nick (October–November 1982). "Zap! Pow! Boom!". ZX Computing: 75. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8210/Pages/ZXComputing821000075.jpg ↩

  220. Gilbert, John (October 1985). "Art Studio". Sinclair User (43): 28. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 18 January 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20060924103003/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/043/sftwreb.htm ↩

  221. Carter, Alasdair (October–November 1983). "VU-3D". ZX Computing: 76–77. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8210/Pages/ZXComputing821000076.jpg ↩

  222. "Psion Vu-3D". Archived from the original on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2007. http://www.bioeddie.co.uk/Spectrum/vu-3d.htm ↩

  223. Brown, Paul N. "Pitcalc — simple interactive coordinate & trigonometric calculation software". Archived from the original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 16 September 2008. http://www.pitcalc.com/ ↩

  224. Lewis, Rhys (23 April 2016). "April 23, 1982: ZX Spectrum brings affordable – and colourful – computing into Britain's homes". London: British Telecom. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20160430023322/http://home.bt.com/news/world-news/april-23-1982-zx-spectrum-brings-affordable-and-colourful-computing-into-britains-homes-11363977137042 ↩

  225. Adamson & Kennedy 1986, p. 64. - Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-008774-1. ↩

  226. McCandless, David (17 September 1998). "Retrospectrum". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 16 October 2009. http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/sinclair/clive_dt170998.htm ↩

  227. Psion Horizons Software starter pack (Cassette inlay). Psion. 1982. ↩

  228. Kelly 1982, p. 5. - Kelly, David (29 July 1982). "Soft Soap from Sinclair". Popular Computing Weekly. Bath: Future plc. ↩

  229. "First isometric home computer game". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231021183708/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/105280-first-isometric-home-computer-game ↩

  230. "First open-world driving videogame". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20220826135350/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-driving-game-to-feature-an-open-world-environment ↩

  231. "First superhero created for a videogame". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231021184047/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/89121-first-superhero-created-for-a-videogame ↩

  232. Bradbeer 1982, pp. 14–15. - Bradbeer, Robin (June 1982). "Early promise is shown by colourful Spectrum". Sinclair User (3). London: EMAP. https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-003/page/n13/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  233. Hartnell 1982, pp. 20–21. - Hartnell, Tim (June 1982). "Review: Sinclair ZX Spectrum". Your Computer. Vol. 2, no. 6. London: IPC Business Press Ltd. pp. 20–22. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-06/page/n19/mode/2up ↩

  234. Hartnell 1982, p. 22. - Hartnell, Tim (June 1982). "Review: Sinclair ZX Spectrum". Your Computer. Vol. 2, no. 6. London: IPC Business Press Ltd. pp. 20–22. https://archive.org/details/your-computer-magazine-1982-06/page/n19/mode/2up ↩

  235. Pratt 1982b, p. 3. - Pratt, Terry (July 1982). "Z-Extra: Spectrum analysis". Computer and Video Games (9). Bath: Future plc. https://archive.org/details/cvg-magazine-009/page/n93/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  236. Tebbutt 1982, p. 118. - Tebbutt, David (June 1982). "Benchtest: Sinclair ZX Spectrum". Personal Computer World. 5 (6). London: Incisive Media. Retrieved 18 May 2024. https://archive.org/details/PersonalComputerWorld1982-06/page/118/mode/2up?q=spectrum ↩

  237. Williams 1983, p. 40. - Williams, Gregg (January 1983). "Microcomputer, British Style / The Fifth Personal Computer World Show". Byte. San Francisco: UBM Technology Group. https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-01/1983_01_BYTE_08-01_Looking_Ahead#page/n41/mode/2up ↩

  238. Leigh, Peter (21 April 2017). "ZX Spectrum Story: Celebrating 35 Years of the Speccy". Nostalgia Nerd. Archived from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230804184058/https://www.nostalgianerd.com/zx-spectrum-story/ ↩

  239. Leigh 2018, p. 69. - Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. ISBN 978-1-78157-570-3. ↩

  240. "How the Spectrum began a revolution". BBC. 23 April 2007. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180152/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6572711.stm ↩

  241. Casserly, Martyn (26 April 2022). "ZX Spectrum: 40 Years of the Punk Rock PC". Tech Advisor. IDG Entertainment. Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230130170959/https://www.techadvisor.com/article/746263/zx-spectrum-at-40-why-its-the-most-important-computer-in-history.html ↩

  242. Williams, Chris (23 April 2007). "Sinclair ZX Spectrum: 25 today". The Register. London: Situation Publishing. Archived from the original on 18 July 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2008. http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2007/04/23/spectrum_zx_25/ ↩

  243. Jowitt, Tom (10 March 2017). "Tales In Tech History: ZX Spectrum". Silicon UK. London: NetMedia International. Retrieved 20 May 2024. https://www.silicon.co.uk/workspace/pc/tales-tech-history-zx-spectrum-207004 ↩

  244. Cellan-Jones, Rory (23 April 2012). "The Spectrum, the Pi - and the coding backlash". BBC News. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2021. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-17811925 ↩

  245. Crookes, David (10 March 2016). "Fancy a Fresh Slice of Pi?". Micro Mart (1404). Dennis Publishing: 8–10, 12, 14, 16 – via the Internet Archive. ProQuest 1787168972. https://archive.org/details/Micro-Mart ↩

  246. Moran, Joe (28 August 2015). "Typewriter, you're fired! How writers learned to love the computer". The Guardian. p. 20. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150906135613/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/aug/28/how-amstrad-word-processor-encouraged-writers-use-computers ↩

  247. Crookes, David (10 March 2016). "Fancy a Fresh Slice of Pi?". Micro Mart (1404). Dennis Publishing: 8–10, 12, 14, 16 – via the Internet Archive. ProQuest 1787168972. https://archive.org/details/Micro-Mart ↩

  248. "The YS Top 100 Speccy Games Of All Time (Ever!)". Your Sinclair (70): 31. October 1991. Archived from the original on 16 August 2006. Retrieved 13 June 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20060816053829/http://www.ysrnry.co.uk/articles/ystop100.htm ↩

  249. Švelch, Jaroslav (2018). Gaming the Iron Curtain: how teenagers and amateurs in Communist Czechoslovakia claimed the medium of computer games. Game Histories. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp. 47–49. ISBN 978-0-262-03884-3. 978-0-262-03884-3 ↩

  250. Hunt 2010, p. 24. - Hunt, Stuart (February 2010). "The Ultimate Hero: A Complete History of Sabreman". Retro Gamer (73). Bath: Future plc. ISSN 1742-3155. OCLC 489477015. https://archive.org/stream/retro_gamer/RetroGamer_073#page/n21/mode/2up ↩

  251. Hunt 2010, pp. 24–31. - Hunt, Stuart (February 2010). "The Ultimate Hero: A Complete History of Sabreman". Retro Gamer (73). Bath: Future plc. ISSN 1742-3155. OCLC 489477015. https://archive.org/stream/retro_gamer/RetroGamer_073#page/n21/mode/2up ↩

  252. McLaughlin, Rus (28 July 2008). "IGN Presents the History of Rare". IGN. Chicago: Ziff Davis. Archived from the original on 10 August 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2017. http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/07/28/ign-presents-the-history-of-rare ↩

  253. "David Perry of Shiny". Eurogamer. Bath: Future plc. 20 October 1999. Archived from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved 25 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20220523024139/https://www.eurogamer.net/dperry ↩

  254. Kelion, Leo (23 April 2012). "Sinclair's ZX Spectrum turns 30". BBC News. Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-17776666 ↩

  255. "About us - What we do". Cronosoft. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230920062525/https://cronosoft.fwscart.com/storepage5357726.aspx ↩

  256. "LOAD ZX Spectrum". Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 19 October 2020. https://www.loadzx.com/en/ ↩

  257. By (13 January 2017). "Retro ZX Spectrum Lives A Spartan Existence". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020. https://hackaday.com/2017/01/12/retro-zx-spectrum-lives-a-spartan-existence/ ↩

  258. "Back this Crowdfunding "ZX-UNO" in Verkami". www.verkami.com. Archived from the original on 5 September 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020. https://www.verkami.com/projects/14074-zx-uno ↩

  259. "ZX-Uno". Archived from the original on 5 January 2018. Retrieved 20 February 2018. http://zxuno.speccy.org/index_e.shtml ↩

  260. Sharwood, Simon (29 January 2014). "Sinclair's ZX Spectrum to LIVE AGAIN!". The Register. Archived from the original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 31 January 2014. https://www.theregister.co.uk/2014/01/29/sinclairs_zx_spectrum_to_live_again/ ↩

  261. Hamilton, Alex (2 January 2014). "ZX Spectrum is coming back as a Bluetooth keyboard". TechRadar. Archived from the original on 4 February 2014. Retrieved 31 January 2014. http://www.techradar.com/news/gaming/zx-spectrum-is-coming-back-as-a-bluetooth-keyboard-1211655 ↩

  262. Curtis, Sophie (2 January 2014). "ZX Spectrum to be resurrected as Bluetooth keyboard". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved 31 January 2014. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10546696/ZX-Spectrum-to-be-resurrected-as-Bluetooth-keyboard.html ↩

  263. Alex Hern. "ZX Spectrum Kickstarter project stalls over unpaid developer bills". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/gamesblog/2014/feb/13/zx-spectrum-kickstarter-over-unpaid-developer-bills ↩

  264. Rundle, Michael (1 October 2015). "Which of the 'retro' Spectrum remakes is worth your £100?". Wired UK. New York City: Condé Nast. ISSN 1357-0978. Archived from the original on 4 September 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/recreated-spectrum-zx-vega-review ↩

  265. Yin-Poole, Wesley (8 July 2016). "When Kickstarters go bad: chasing down the Recreated ZX Spectrum". Eurogamer. Bath: Future plc. Archived from the original on 11 October 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20231011181505/https://www.eurogamer.net/when-kickstarters-go-bad-chasing-down-the-recreated-zx-spectrum ↩

  266. Samuel Gibbs (2 December 2014). "ZX Spectrum gets new lease of life as Vega games console". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/dec/02/zx-spectrum-vega-games-console ↩

  267. Samuel Gibbs (2 December 2014). "ZX Spectrum gets new lease of life as Vega games console". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/dec/02/zx-spectrum-vega-games-console ↩

  268. Theo Merz (3 January 2014). "8 reasons you should be excited about the return of the ZX Spectrum". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2016. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/the-filter/10547681/8-reasons-you-should-be-excited-about-the-return-of-the-ZX-Spectrum.html ↩

  269. Kelion, Leo (2 December 2014). "Syntax era: Sir Clive Sinclair's ZX Spectrum revolution". BBC News. Archived from the original on 7 December 2014. Retrieved 8 December 2014. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-30333671 ↩

  270. McFerran, Damien (16 September 2015). "ZX Spectrum Vega Review". Trusted Reviews. Archived from the original on 5 September 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020. https://www.trustedreviews.com/reviews/zx-spectrum-vega ↩

  271. "Sinclair Vega". www.thespectrumshow.co.uk. Archived from the original on 12 August 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020. http://www.thespectrumshow.co.uk/Feature12.aspx ↩

  272. "ZX Spectrum Vega vs Recreated ZX Spectrum". Stuff. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200803180757/https://www.stuff.tv/features/zx-spectrum-vega-vs-recreated-zx-spectrum/zx-spectrum-vega-ps100-pp ↩

  273. Rundle, Michael (1 October 2015). "Which of the 'retro' Spectrum remakes is worth your £100?". Wired UK. New York City: Condé Nast. ISSN 1357-0978. Archived from the original on 4 September 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/recreated-spectrum-zx-vega-review ↩

  274. Merriman, Chris. "ZX Spectrum Vega+ raises three times its Indiegogo target in three weeks". The Inquirer. Incisive Business Media Limited. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160309104916/http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/2450038/zx-spectrum-vega-raises-three-times-its-indigogo-target-in-three-weeks ↩

  275. Corfield, Gareth (9 August 2018). "ZX Spectrum Vega+ blows a FUSE: It runs open-source emulator". The Register. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2021. https://www.theregister.com/2018/08/09/zx_spectrum_vega_plus_hands_on_review/ ↩

  276. Corfield, Gareth (5 February 2019). "Is this a wind-up?". The Register. Situation Publishing. Archived from the original on 5 February 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2019. https://www.theregister.co.uk/2019/02/05/retro_computers_ltd_wound_up_private_planet/ ↩

  277. "About". Sinclair ZX Spectrum Next. 29 April 2017. Archived from the original on 5 November 2023. Retrieved 13 February 2020. https://www.specnext.com/about/ ↩

  278. "Celebrate the Sinclair ZX Spectrum's 35th anniversary with… yet another retro console". Metro (UK). 24 April 2017. Archived from the original on 6 October 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2020. https://metro.co.uk/2017/04/24/celebrate-the-sinclair-zx-spectrums-35th-anniversary-with-yet-another-retro-console-6594446/ ↩

  279. "Quick Start Guide / Instructions for the 2A/B Next boards". ZX Spectrum Next. 3 December 2017. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 15 May 2024. https://www.specnext.com/instructions-for-the-2a-next-board/ ↩

  280. Rick Dickinson (28 September 2017), specnext1.1157, archived from the original on 24 January 2022, retrieved 30 July 2020 https://www.flickr.com/photos/9574086@N02/37361836341/ ↩

  281. "First ZX Spectrum Next delivered". Sinclair ZX Spectrum Next. 6 February 2020. Archived from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2020. https://www.specnext.com/first-zx-spectrum-next-delivered/ ↩

  282. Hattersley, Lucy (April 2020). "ZX Spectrum Next Accelerated review". MagPi Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020. https://magpi.raspberrypi.org/articles/zx-spectrum-next-accelerated-review ↩

  283. Halfacree, Gareth (June 2020). "ZX Spectrum Next". PC Pro Magazine (UK). ↩

  284. "ZX Spectrum Next Issue 2 blasts through Kickstarter goal". BBC News. 13 August 2020. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2021. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-53765852 ↩

  285. "ZX Touch – ZX Spectrum handheld console". ZX Touch. Retrieved 12 April 2025. https://zx-touch.com/ ↩

  286. Games, Chris Smith, Retro (11 January 2024). "The Spectrum". retrogames.biz. Retrieved 1 September 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) https://retrogames.biz/products/thespectrum/ ↩

  287. Reporter, Matt Wales News (27 August 2024). "ZX Spectrum recreation coming this November from team behind Atari 400 Mini, rubber keys and all". Eurogamer.net. Retrieved 1 September 2024. https://www.eurogamer.net/zx-spectrum-recreation-coming-from-team-behind-atari-400-mini-rubber-keys-and-all ↩

  288. Spitznagel, Eric (12 August 2010). "Scott Pilgrim Director Edgar Wright Sees No Difference Between Video Games and Heroin". Vanity Fair. Retrieved 1 September 2024. https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/08/scott-pilgrim-director-edgar-wright-sees-no-difference-between-video-games-and-heroin ↩

  289. "St. George's Day / The 30th Anniversary of the ZX Spectrum". Archived from the original on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2012. https://doodles.google/doodle/st-georges-day-the-30th-anniversary-of-the-zx-spectrum/ ↩

  290. Hughes, William (28 December 2018). "Bandersnatch's stockpile of Black Mirror easter eggs includes a playable video game take on an old episode". The A.V. Club. New York City: G/O Media. Archived from the original on 11 October 2023. Retrieved 28 December 2018. https://www.avclub.com/bandersnatchs-stockpile-of-black-mirror-easter-eggs-inc-1831365758 ↩