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Turkey
Country in West Asia and Southeast Europe

Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, straddles Anatolia in West Asia and a small part in East Thrace, Southeast Europe. Bordered by seas and countries including the Black Sea, Greece, and Iran, it has a diverse history from ancient Anatolian peoples through the Ottoman Empire to the modern republic proclaimed in 1923. Turkey’s capital, Ankara, and largest city, Istanbul, anchor its vibrant culture and economy. An emerging country with the world’s 16th-largest economy, Turkey is a member of NATO, G20, and the Organization of Turkic States. Renowned for its diverse landscape, rich cultural heritage, and status as the fourth most visited country, Turkey blends history and modernity uniquely.

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Etymology

Turchia, meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts for Anatolia by the end of the 12th century.222324 As a word in Turkic languages, Turk may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength".25 It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.26 As an ethnonym, the etymology is still unknown.27 In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century,28 the earliest mention of Turk (𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜, türü̲k̲; or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚, türk/tẄrk) in Turkic languages comes from the Second Turkic Khaganate.29

In Byzantine sources in the 10th century, the name Tourkia was used for defining two medieval states: Hungary (Western Tourkia); and Khazaria (Eastern Tourkia).3031 The Mamluk Sultanate, with its ruling elite of Turkic origin, was called the "State of the Turks" (Dawlat at-Turk, or Dawlat al-Atrāk, or Dawlat-at-Turkiyya).32 Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region in Central Asia.33

Middle English usage of Turkye or Turkeye is found in The Book of the Duchess (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or the Ottoman Empire.34 The modern spelling Turkey dates back to at least 1719.35 The bird called turkey was named as such due to trade of guineafowl from Turkey to England.36 The name Turkey has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire.37 With the Treaty of Alexandropol in 1920, the name Türkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan in 1921, the expression Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire's name.38

In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan called for expanded official usage of Türkiye, saying that Türkiye "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way".39 In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the United Nations and other international organizations to use Türkiye officially in English; the UN agreed.404142

History

Main article: History of Turkey

See also: History of Anatolia, History of Thrace, and Ancient regions of Anatolia

Prehistory and ancient history

Main articles: Prehistory of Anatolia and Prehistory of Southeast Europe

See also: Hattians, Hittites, Luwians, and Pala (Anatolia)

Present-day Turkey has been inhabited by modern humans since the late Paleolithic period and contains some of the world's oldest Neolithic sites.4344 Göbekli Tepe is close to 12,000 years old.45 Parts of Anatolia include the Fertile Crescent, an origin of agriculture.46 Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites include Çatalhöyük and Alaca Höyük.47 Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers in Iran and Jordan Valley.48 These early Anatolian farmers also migrated into Europe, starting around 9,000 years ago.495051 Troy's earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC.52

Anatolia's historical records start with clay tablets from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-day Kültepe.53 These tablets belonged to an Assyrian trade colony.54 The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian, Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic.55 Hattian was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections.5657 Hurrian language was used in northern Syria.58 Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest written Indo-European languages",59 forming the Anatolian sub-group.6061

Hattian rulers were gradually replaced by Hittite rulers.62 The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of Hattusa.63 It co-existed in Anatolia with Palaians and Luwians, approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC.64 As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.65 The Thracians were also present in modern-day Turkish Thrace.66 It is not known if the Trojan War is based on historical events.67 Troy's Late Bronze Age layers matches most with Iliad's story.68

Early classical antiquity

Main article: Classical Anatolia

See also: Phrygia, Lydia, Lycia, Caria, Urartu, Achaemenid Empire, and Hellenistic period

Around 750 BC, Phrygia had been established, with its two centers in Gordium and modern-day Kayseri.69 Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language, which was closer to Greek than Anatolian languages.70 Phrygians shared Anatolia with Neo-Hittites and Urartu. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states.71 Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was around Lake Van.7273 Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC.7475 They were replaced by Carians, Lycians and Lydians.76 These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".77

Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including Miletus.78 Around 1000 BC, Greeks started migrating to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization;7980 important cities included Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus, Smyrna (now İzmir) and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latter founded by colonists from Megara in the seventh century BCE.81 These settlements were grouped as Aeolis, Ionia, and Doris, after the specific Greek groups that settled them.8283 Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus and Megara in 750–480 BC.84 The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments.85 Thales and Anaximander from Miletus founded the Ionian School of philosophy, thereby laying the foundations of rationalism and Western philosophy.86

Cyrus attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, and Achaemenid Empire eventually expanded into western Anatolia.87 In the east, the Armenian province was part of the Achaemenid Empire.88 Following the Greco-Persian Wars, the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of the interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire.89 Two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, were located in Anatolia.90

Following the victories of Alexander in 334 BC and 333 BC, the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the Macedonian Empire.91 This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization of the Anatolian interior,929394 which met resistance in some places.95 Following Alexander's death, the Seleucids ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, the kingdom of Armenia appeared. In third century BC, Celts invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as the Galatians.96

Rome and Byzantine Empire

Main articles: Classical Anatolia and Byzantine Anatolia

See also: Roman Republic, Roman Empire, Christianity in Turkey, and Byzantine Empire

When Pergamon requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids, Rome intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed as province of Asia. Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards.97 Following Asiatic Vespers massacre, and Mithridatic Wars with Pontus, Rome emerged victorious. Around the 1st century BC, Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia, while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites.98 Several conflicts with Parthians ensued, with peace and wars alternating.99

According to Acts of the Apostles, early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because of St Paul's efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise the oldest Christian literature.100 Under Roman authority, ecumenical councils such as Council of Nicaea (Iznik) in 325 served as a guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings".101

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world. The term Byzantine Empire was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as Romans. Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium, the adoption of Christianity as the state religion, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire.

In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such as Goths, Celts, Persians and Jews. Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized".102 Anatolian languages eventually became extinct after Hellenization of Anatolia.103

Seljuks and Anatolian beyliks

Main articles: Seljuk Empire, Sultanate of Rum, and Anatolian beyliks

Further information: Turkic migration, Oghuz Turks, and Turkification

According to historians and linguists, the Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia.104 Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became nomadic pastoralists.105 Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranic, Mongolic, Tocharian, Uralic, and Yeniseian peoples.106 During the 9th and 10th centuries CE, the Oghuz were a Turkic group that lived in the Caspian and Aral steppes.107 Partly due to pressure from the Kipchaks, the Oghuz migrated into Iran and Transoxiana.108 They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to Islam.109 Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkmen or Turkoman.110111

The ruling family of the Seljuks originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks.112 In 1040, the Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan and established the Seljuk Empire in Greater Khorasan.113 Baghdad, the Abbasid Caliphate's capital and center of the Islamic world, was taken by Seljuks in 1055.114 Given the role Khurasani traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as a mixture of "Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences".115 In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and Anatolia.116 At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being Hellenized.117118119

The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and later established the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.120 During this period, there were also Turkish principalities such as Danishmendids.121 Seljuk arrival started the Turkification process in Anatolia;122123 there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam.124125 The shift took several centuries and happened gradually.126127 Members of Islamic mysticism orders, such as Mevlevi Order, played a role in the Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia.128129 Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for the Crusades.130 In 13th century, there was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fled Mongol expansion.131132 Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities.133134

Ottoman Empire

Main article: Ottoman Empire

Based around Söğüt, Ottoman Beylik was founded by Osman I in the early 14th century.135 According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.136 Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans.137 Mehmed II completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople, on 29 May 1453.138 Selim I united Anatolia under Ottoman rule.139 Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.140

The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent.141142 In the 16th and 17th centuries, Sephardic Jews moved into Ottoman Empire following their expulsion from Spain.143 From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II in 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 was the first among Muslim states, but was short-lived.144145

As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875146 which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians, which claimed up to 300,000 lives.147[better source needed] Ottoman territories in Europe (Rumelia) were lost in the First Balkan War (1912–1913).148 Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such as Edirne, in the Second Balkan War (1913).

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in estimated 5 million deaths,149150 with the casualties including Turks.151 Five to seven or seven to nine million refugees migrated into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea, and Mediterranean islands,152 shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.153 In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as Circassians and Crimean Tatars.154155 Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.156 Circassian refugees included the survivors of the Circassian genocide.157

Following the 1913 coup d'état, the Three Pashas took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated.158 During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian genocide. As a result, an estimated 600,000159 to more than 1 million,160 or up to 1.5 million161162163 Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge164165 the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only "relocated" from the eastern war zone.166 Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks.167168169 Following the Armistice of Mudros in 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought the partition of the Ottoman Empire through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.170

Republic of Türkiye

Main article: History of the Republic of Turkey

The occupation of Istanbul (1918) and İzmir (1919) by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I initiated the Turkish National Movement. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920).171

The Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled.172173174175 The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of the Armistice of Mudanya on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule.

The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,176177 led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from Istanbul. The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.178 The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey.179

Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first president and introduced many reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the old religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman monarchy into a Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary republic under a secular constitution.180 Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934.181 With the Surname Law, the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father Turk).182 Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in some Kurdish and Zaza tribes leading to the Sheikh Said rebellion in 1925183 and the Dersim rebellion in 1937.184

İsmet İnönü became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, the Republic of Hatay voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey remained neutral during almost all of World War II,185 but entered the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945.186 Later that year, Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations.187 In 1950 Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe. After fighting as part of the UN forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean.

Military coups or memorandums, which happened in 1960, 1971, 1980, and 1997, complicated Turkey's transition to a democratic multiparty system.188189 Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal. PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s.190 It is designated as a terrorist organization by Turkey,191 the United States,192 and the European Union.193 Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005.194195 Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector.196197

In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct presidential election.198 On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government.199 According to the Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt.200201 With a referendum in 2017, the parliamentary republic was replaced by an executive presidential system. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, the Supreme Electoral Council lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp.202 The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million ballots without a stamp were accepted as valid.203 In 2025 the PKK declared a ceasefire.204

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Turkey

Further information: Regions of Turkey and NUTS of Turkey

Turkey is a unitary state. Its administrative system includes central and local administration. Central administration consists of the central government in Ankara, and local departments such as 81 provinces and their subdivisions. Local administration authorities consist of metropolitan municipalities, municipalities, neighborhoods or villages, and special provincial administrations. For economic and geographic reasons, Turkey is also categorized into seven regions and 21 sub-regions.205

Ankara Kırklareli Edirne Tekirdağ Çanakkale Balıkesir Bursa Yalova Istanbul Kocaeli Sakarya Düzce Zonguldak Bolu Bilecik Eskişehir Kütahya Manisa İzmir Aydın Muğla Denizli Burdur Uşak Afyonkarahisar Isparta Antalya Konya Mersin Karaman Aksaray Kırşehir Kırıkkale Çankırı Karabük Bartın Kastamonu Sinop Çorum Yozgat Nevşehir Niğde Adana Hatay Osmaniye K. Maraş Kayseri Sivas Tokat Amasya Samsun Ordu Giresun Erzincan Malatya Gaziantep Kilis Şanlıurfa Adıyaman Gümüşhane Trabzon Rize Bayburt Erzurum Artvin Ardahan Kars Ağrı Iğdır Tunceli Elazığ Diyarbakır Mardin Batman Siirt Şırnak Bitlis Bingöl Muş Van Hakkâri

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Turkey, Politics of Turkey, and Constitution of Turkey

See also: Law enforcement in Turkey

Turkey is a presidential republic within a multi-party system.206 The current constitution was adopted in 1982.207 In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to three levels of government: national, provincial, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between municipal governments and districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. The government comprises three branches: first is the legislative branch, which is Grand National Assembly of Turkey;208 second is the executive branch, which is the President of Turkey;209 and third is the judicial branch, which includes the Constitutional Court, the Court of Cassation and Court of Jurisdictional Disputes.210211

The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among the provinces proportionally to the population. The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president is elected by direct vote and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term. The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65.212 Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with democratic backsliding, being described as a competitive authoritarian system.213214

Parties and elections

Main articles: Elections in Turkey, Political parties in Turkey, and Electoral cycle of Turkey

Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential (national), parliamentary (national), municipality mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial or municipal council members (local), and muhtars (local). Referendums are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934.215 In Turkey, turnout rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is currently serving as the head of state and head of government.216217 Özgür Özel is the Main Opposition Leader. The last parliamentary and presidential elections were in 2023.

The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or having ties to terrorism, or ban their existence altogether.218219 The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes.220 Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold.

On the right side of the Turkish political spectrum, parties like the Democrat Party, Justice Party, Motherland Party, and Justice and Development Party became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish right-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such as conservatism, nationalism or Islamism.221 On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the Republican People's Party, Social Democratic Populist Party and Democratic Left Party once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of socialism, Kemalism or secularism.222

Law

Main article: Judicial system of Turkey

With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a civil law legal system, replacing Sharia-derived Ottoman law. The Civil Code, adopted in 1926, was based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code, originally based on the Italian Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the German Penal Code and German law generally. Administrative law is based on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems.223 Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.224

Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the General Directorate of Security, the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command.225 In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.226227228

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Turkey

Turkey has been characterized as an emerging229 or rising,230 a middle,231 a quasi-regional,232 and a regional power.233234 Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security from internal terrorist and external threats.235 After the establishment of the Republic, Atatürk and İnönü followed the "peace at home, peace in the world" principle until the Cold War's start.236 Following threats from the Soviet Union, Turkey sought to ally with the United States and joined NATO in 1952.237238

Overall, Turkey aims for good relations with Central Asia, the Caucasus, Russia, the Middle East, and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements.239 By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth.240 Turkey joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995,241 but its EU accession talks are frozen as of 2024.242

Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union.243 Closer relations with Azerbaijan, a culturally close country, was achieved.244 Turkey is a founding member of the International Organization of Turkic Culture and Organization of Turkic States.245246 It is also a member of Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Council of Europe, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.247

Following the Arab Spring, Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.248 Relations with these countries have improved since then.249250251 There are disputes with Greece over maritime boundaries and with Cyprus.252 In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began an operation in Syria aimed at ousting US-backed YPG (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawed PKK)253254 from the enclave of Afrin.255256 Turkey has also conducted airstrikes in Iraqi Kurdistan, which was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians.257 Diplomatic relations with Israel were damaged after the Gaza flotilla raid,258 normalized in 2016,259 and cut again following the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip.260 In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel.261

Military

Main article: Turkish Armed Forces

See also: Turkish Land Forces, Turkish Naval Forces, and Turkish Air Force

The Turkish Armed Forces are responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is the President, General Staff, Air Force, Naval Force, and Land Force usually report to the Minister of National Defence.262 The Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior.263 Military service is required for 6–12 months for men,264 which is reduced to one month after paying a fee.265 Turkey does not recognize conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.266

Turkey has the second-largest military force in NATO, after the United States, with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022.267 Turkey is considered a significant power in unmanned aerial vehicles.268 As part of the nuclear sharing policy of NATO, Turkey hosts approximately 20 United States B61 nuclear bombs at the Incirlik Air Base.269270 In recent years, Turkey’s defense industry has developed rapidly.271 Aselsan, Turkish Aerospace Industries, Roketsan, and ASFAT are among the top 100 defense companies in the world.272

Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since the Korean War, including peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Yugoslavia and the Horn of Africa. It supported coalition forces in the First Gulf War, contributed military personnel to the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, and remains active in Kosovo Force, Eurocorps and EU Battlegroups.273274 As of 2016, Turkey has assisted Peshmerga forces in northern Iraq and the Somali Armed Forces with security and training.275276 The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad,277 with military bases in Albania,278 Iraq,279 Qatar,280 and Somalia.281 The country also maintains a force of 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus since 1974.282

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Turkey

Article two of the Turkish Constitution includes references to upholding the rule of law and human rights.283 In the 2000s, legal changes were made for public use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. This included opening a Kurdish-language national TV channel. Various "openings" were made to address concerns of minorities such as Alevi, ethnic Kurds, and ethnic Romani people.284 Sentences for violence against women were strengthened.285

In 2013, widespread protests erupted, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government dissent.286 On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish HDP and the main opposition CHP party.287288 According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, there are 13 jailed journalists in Turkey.289 In its 2023 report, the European Commission criticized how democratic institutions in Turkey operate.290 The criticism was rejected by Turkey.291 As of 2023, Turkey was the country with the highest number of European Court of Human Rights cases.292

Prior to 1858, Ottoman Empire had "a lenient legal accommodation of same-sex intimacy". When prosecuted, the punishment was monetary fines. In 1858, the 1810 French Penal Code was adopted by the Ottomans, which had no penalties for same-sex intimacy that is private.293 Under the Republic, same sex acts have never been criminalized.294 However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence.295 In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.296297

When the annual Istanbul Pride was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.298 Since 2015, parades at Taksim Square and İstiklal Avenue have been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year.299 The bans were criticized.300

Geography

Main article: Geography of Turkey

See also: List of national parks of Turkey

Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometres (302,535 square miles).301 With Turkish straits and Sea of Marmara in between, Turkey bridges Western Asia and Southeastern Europe.302 Turkey's Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often called Anatolia.303 Another definition of Anatolia's eastern boundary is an imprecise line from the Black Sea to Gulf of Iskenderun.304 Eastern Thrace, Turkey's European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area.305 The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.306 Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east.307 To the south, it's bordered by Syria and Iraq.308 To the north, its Thracian area is bordered by Greece and Bulgaria.309

Turkey is divided into "seven major regions": Marmara, Aegean, Central Anatolia, Black Sea, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean.310 As a general trend, the inland Anatolian Plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.311 Mountain ranges include Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north, and the Taurus Mountains to the south. The Lakes Region contains some of the largest lakes in Turkey such as Lake Beyşehir and Lake Eğirdir.

Geographers have used the eastern Anatolian plateau, Iranian plateau, and Armenian plateau terms to refer to the mountainous area around where Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates merge. The eastern Anatolian plateau and Armenian plateau definitions largely overlap.312 The Eastern Anatolia Region contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 feet),313 and Lake Van, the largest lake in the country.314 Eastern Turkey is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras. The Southeastern Anatolia Region includes the northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia.

Earthquakes happen frequently in Turkey.315 Almost the entire population lives in areas with varying seismic risk levels, with around 70% in highest or second-highest seismic areas.316317 Anatolian plate is bordered by North Anatolian Fault zone to the north; East Anatolian Fault zone and Bitlis–Zagros collision zone to the east; Hellenic and Cyprus subduction zones to the south; and Aegean extensional zone to the west.318 After 1999 İzmit and 1999 Düzce earthquakes, North Anatolian Fault zone activity "is considered to be one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Turkey".319 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes were the deadliest in contemporary Turkish history.320 Turkey is sometimes unfavorably compared to Chile, a country with a similar developmental level that is more successful with earthquake preparedness.321322323

Biodiversity

Main articles: Wildlife of Turkey, Fauna of Turkey, and Flora and vegetation of Turkey

See also: Environmental issues in Turkey

Turkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the three Old World continents and the variety of the habitats across its ecoregions have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.324 Out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots in the world, Turkey includes 3 of them.325 These are the Mediterranean, Irano-Anatolian, and Caucasus hotspots.326

The forests of Turkey are home to the Turkey oak. The most commonly found species of the genus Platanus (plane) is the orientalis. The Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.327328

There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troy National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park.329 The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper.330

The Anatolian leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.331332 The Eurasian lynx, the European wildcat and the caracal are other felid species which are found in the forests of Turkey. The Caspian tiger, now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century.333334 Renowned domestic animals from Ankara include the Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat; and from Van Province the Van cat. The national dog breeds are the Kangal (Anatolian Shepherd), Malaklı and Akbaş.335

Climate

Main article: Climate of Turkey

See also: Climate change in Turkey

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.336 The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.337 The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year.338 The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.339 The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.340

Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter but usually melts in no more than a few days.341 However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.342 Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) with the mountains being even colder. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian Plateau a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.343

Due to socioeconomic, climatic, and geographic factors, Turkey is highly vulnerable to climate change.344 This applies to nine out of ten climate vulnerability dimensions, such as "average annual risk to wellbeing".345 OECD median is two out of ten.346 Inclusive and swift growth is needed for decreasing vulnerability.347 Turkey aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2053.348 Accomplishing climate goals would require large investments, but would also result in net economic benefits, broadly due to reduced imports of fuel and due to better health from lowering air pollution.349

Economy

Main article: Economy of Turkey

See also: Tourism in Turkey

Turkey is an upper-middle-income country and an emerging market.350351 A founding member of the OECD and G20, it has the 16th-largest economy by nominal and 12th-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP in the world.352 It is classified among newly industrialized countries. The service sector accounts for 61% of the economy, whereas industry accounts for 32% and agriculture contributes about 7%.353 According to IMF estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $42,451 in 2025, while its nominal GDP per capita is $16,709.354 Foreign direct investment in Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022.355 Potential growth is weakened by long-lasting structural and macro obstacles, such as slow rates of productivity growth and high inflation.356

Turkey has a diversified economy; main industries include automobiles, electronics, textiles, construction, steel, mining, and food processing.357 Machinery and manufacturing lead among products in Turkey's merchandise exports.358 Turkey is a major agricultural producer.359 It ranks 8th in crude steel production, and 13th in motor vehicle production, ship building (by tonnage), and annual industrial robot installation in the world.360 Turkish automative companies include TEMSA, Otokar, BMC and Togg. Togg is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey. Arçelik, Vestel, and Beko are major manufacturers of consumer electronics.361 Arçelik is one of the largest producers of household goods in the world.362 In 2022, Turkey ranked second in the world in terms of the number of international contractors in the top 250 list.363 It is also the fifth largest in the world in terms of textile exports.364

Turkey's services exports are mostly transport and tourism.365 Tourism accounts for about 8% of Turkey's GDP.366 In 2024, Turkey ranked fourth in the world in the number of international tourist arrivals with 60.6 million foreign tourists.367 Turkey has 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites and 84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list. Turkey is home to 519 Blue Flag beaches, third most in the world.368 In 2024, Euromonitor International ranked Istanbul and Antalya among the top ten most visited cities in the world.369 Turkish Airlines is one of the largest airlines in the world.

Between 2007 and 2021, the share of population below the PPP-$6.85 per day international poverty threshold declined from 20% to 7.6%.370 In 2023, 13.9% of the population was below the national at-risk-of-poverty rate.371 In 2021, 34% of the population were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, using Eurostat definition.372 Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022.373 In 2021, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.374 Compared to the OECD average, labor force participation of women is lower. Affordable childcare and better parental leave policies are needed to lift women's employment.375

Infrastructure

Main articles: Energy in Turkey, Renewable energy in Turkey, and Transport in Turkey

See also: Communications in Turkey and Water supply and sanitation in Turkey

Turkey is the 15th-largest electricity and 13th-largest renewable electricity producer in the world. Turkey's energy generation capacity increased significantly, with electricity generation from renewable sources tripling in the past decade.376377 It produced 43.8% of its electricity from such sources in 2019.378 Turkey is also the fourth-largest producer of geothermal power in the world.379 Turkey's first nuclear power station, Akkuyu, will increase diversification of its energy mix.380 When it comes to total final consumption, fossil fuels still play a large role, accounting for 73%.381 A major reason of Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions is the large proportion of coal in the energy system.382 As of 2017, while the government had invested in low carbon energy transition, fossil fuels were still subsidized.383 By 2053, Turkey aims to have net zero emissions.384385

Turkey has made security of its energy supply a top priority, given its heavy reliance on gas and oil imports.386 Turkey's main energy supply sources are Russia, West Asia, and Central Asia.387 Gas production began in 2023 in the recently discovered Sakarya gas field. When fully operational, it will supply about 30% of the natural gas needed domestically.388389 Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation.390 Several oil and gas pipelines span the country, including the Blue Stream, TurkStream, and Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipelines.391

As of 2023, Turkey has 3,726 kilometers of controlled-access highways and 29,373 kilometers of divided highways.392 Multiple bridges and tunnels connect Asian and European sides of Turkey; the Çanakkale 1915 Bridge on the Dardanelles strait is the longest suspension bridge in the world.393 Marmaray and Eurasia tunnels under the Bosporus connect both sides of Istanbul.394 The Osman Gazi Bridge connects the northern and southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit.

Turkish State Railways operates both conventional and high speed trains, with the government expanding both.395 High-speed rail lines include the Ankara-Istanbul, Ankara-Konya, and Ankara-Sivas routes.396 Istanbul Metro is the largest subway network in the country with around 704 million annual ridership in 2019.397 There are 115 airports as of 2024.398 Istanbul Airport is one of the top 10 busiest airports in the world. Turkey aims to become a transportation hub.399400 It is part of various routes that connect Asia and Europe, including the Middle Corridor.401 In 2024, Turkey, Iraq, UAE, and Qatar signed an agreement to link Iraqi port facilities to Turkey via road and rail connections.402

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Turkey

See also: Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey

Turkey's spending on research and development as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2023,403 although it is still around half of the average for the OECD.404 Turkey ranks 16th in the world in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th in Nature Index.405406 Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally, Turkish residents rank 21st for overall patent applications.407 In 2024, Turkey ranked 37th in the world and 3rd among its upper-middle income group in the Global Innovation Index.408 Istanbul and Ankara rank among the top 100 science and technology clusters in the world.409 TÜBİTAK is one of the main agencies for funding and carrying out research.410411412

Although Turkey needs more national innovation,413 it is improving in areas such as high technology and defense.414 To boost the output of high-value-added products, Turkey launched its National Technology Initiative in 2019.415 In line with its research priorities, Turkey developed roadmaps in various areas such as advanced materials, artificial intelligence, biotechnology, internet of things, nanoelectronics, robotics, and quantum technology.416 Some of the main science and technology programs include the National Research Program, Industry and Technology Strategy, Climate Change Strategy, National Artificial Intelligence Strategy, and National Space Program.417 In 2024 and 2025, Turkey's first electron accelerator,418 quantum computer,419 and communication satellite manufactured domestically became operational.420

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Turkey

See also: Turkish people

According to the Address-Based Population Recording System, the country's population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection.421 93% lived in province and district centers.422 People within the 15–64 and 0–14 age groups corresponded to 68.3% and 21.4% of the total population, respectively. Those aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%.423 Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey's population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million;424 however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023.425 In 2023, the total fertility rate was 1.51 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.10 per woman.426 In a 2018 health survey, the ideal children number was 2.8 children per woman, rising to 3 per married woman.427

Ethnicity and language

See also: Turkish people, Minorities in Turkey, Languages of Turkey, and Turkish language

Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is a citizen.428 It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.429 Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the 1965 Turkish census.430 According to the World Factbook, 70–75% of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks.431 Based on a survey, KONDA's estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background as Turk.432 In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.433

Kurds are the largest ethnic minority.434 Their exact numbers remain disputed,435 with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population.436 The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of Ağrı, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Hakkari, Iğdır, Mardin, Muş, Siirt, Şırnak, Tunceli and Van; a near majority in Şanlıurfa (47%); and a large minority in Kars (20%).437 In addition, internal migration has resulted in Kurdish diaspora communities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world.438 19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021.439 Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd.440441 In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.442

According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population.443 In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people who gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people with other Turkic backgrounds, Arabs, and others.444 In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey.445 According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognized minorities in Turkey: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in the Treaty of Lausanne (Armenians, Greeks, and Jews446) and the Bulgarians.447448449450 In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply to Assyrians in Turkey and the Syriac language.451452453 Other unrecognized ethnic groups include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Pomaks, and Roma.454455456

The official language is Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic language in the world.457458 It is spoken by 85%459460 to 90%461 of the population as a first language. Kurdish speakers are the largest linguistic minority.462 A survey estimated 13% of the population speak Kurdish or Zaza as a first language.463 Other minority languages include Arabic, Caucasian languages, and Gagauz.464 The linguistic rights of the officially recognized minorities are de jure recognized and protected for Armenian, Bulgarian, Greek, Hebrew,465466467468469 and Syriac.470471 There are multiple endangered languages in Turkey.

 
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Largest cities or towns in TurkeyTÜİK's address-based calculation from 31 December 2023 published on 7 February 2024.
RankNamePop.RankNamePop.
1Istanbul15,655,92411Mersin1,938,389
2Ankara5,803,48212Diyarbakır1,818,133
3İzmir4,479,52513Hatay1,544,640
4Bursa3,214,57114Manisa1,475,716
5Antalya2,696,24915Kayseri1,445,683
6Konya2,320,24116Samsun1,377,546
7Adana2,270,29817Balıkesir1,273,519
8Şanlıurfa2,213,96418Tekirdağ1,167,059
9Gaziantep2,164,13419Aydın1,161,702
10Kocaeli2,102,90720Van1,127,612

Immigration

Main article: Immigration to Turkey

Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023.472 Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the Gulf War in 1991. Turkey's migrant crisis in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.473 Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.474 The Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.475

In November 2020, there were 3.6 million Syrian refugees in Turkey;476 these included other ethnic groups of Syria, such as Syrian Kurds477 and Syrian Turkmens.478 As of August 2023, the number of these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.479 The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.480 As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian refugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have sought refuge in Turkey.481 In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.482

Religion

Main article: Religion in Turkey

Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.483484 According to the CIA World Factbook, Muslims constitute 99.8% of the population, most of them being Sunni.485 Based on a survey, KONDA's estimate for Muslims was 99.4% in 2006.486 According to Minority Rights Group International, estimates of share of Alevi are between 10% and 40% of the population.487 KONDA's estimate was 5% in 2006.488 4% of adult citizens identified as Alevi in a survey in 2021, while 88% identified as Sunni.489

The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927.490 Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook.491 In 2006, KONDA's estimate was that 0.18% of the population adhered to non-Islamic religions.492 Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians, Assyrians, Bulgarian Orthodox, Catholics, Greeks, Jews, and Protestants.493 Sources estimate that the Christian population in Turkey ranges between 180,000 and 320,000.494495 Turkey has the largest Jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries.496 Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.497

In 2006, KONDA estimated that 0.47% of the population had no religion.498 According to KONDA, the share of adult citizens who identified as nonbelievers increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021.499 A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of the Generation Z identified as irreligious.500501

Education

Main article: Education in Turkey

In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access.502 From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include significant rise in the rates of upper secondary and tertiary education completion, and quadrupling of pre-school institutions.503 PISA results suggest improvements in education quality.504 There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.505

The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.506 Compulsory education is free at public schools and lasts 12 years, divided into three parts.507508 There are 208 universities in Turkey.509 Students are placed to universities based on their YKS results and their preferences, by the Measuring, Selection and Placement Center.510 All state and private universities are under the control of the Higher Education Board. Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.511

According to the 2024 Times Higher Education ranking, the top universities were Koç University, Middle East Technical University, Sabancı University, and Istanbul Technical University.512 According to Academic Ranking of World Universities, the top ones were Istanbul University, University of Health Sciences (Turkey), and Hacettepe University.513 For foreign students, Turkey has become a regional hub,514 with a large number of international students515 and international scholarships.516517518

Health

Main article: Health care in Turkey

The Ministry of Health has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.519 Known as Universal Health Insurance (Genel Sağlık Sigortası), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.520 Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.521 Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.522 There are many private hospitals in the country.523 The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013.524 Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations for health tourism.525

Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years.526 Turkey has high rates of obesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having a body mass index (BMI) value of 30 or above.527 Air pollution is a major cause of early death.528

Culture

Main article: Culture of Turkey

See also: Arts in Turkey, Turkish folklore, and Festivals in Turkey

In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in the Ottoman Empire, with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism.529 In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia's native cultures.530 After the establishment of the republic, Kemalism emphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make "Islam a matter of personal conviction", and pursued modernization.531 Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music, folk dance, or kebap variety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as national sports leagues, music bands, film stars, and trends in fashion.532 Turkey is home to 21 UNESCO World Heritage sites and 31 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage inscriptions.533

Literature, theatre, and visual arts

Main articles: Turkish literature, Theatre of Turkey, and Turkish art

Turkish literature goes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive. Tales of Dede Korkut is an example of the oral narrative tradition. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry. Yunus Emre, influenced by Rumi, was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. Ottoman Divan poetry used "refined diction" and complex vocabulary. It included Sufi mysticism, romanticism, and formal elements.534

Beginning in the 19th century, Ottoman literature was influenced by the West. New genres, such as novels and journalistic style, were introduced. Aşk-ı Memnu, written by Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil, was the "first truly refined Turkish novel". Fatma Aliye Topuz, the first female Turkish novelist, wrote fiction. After the proclamation of the republic in 1923, Atatürk instituted reforms such as the language reform and alphabet reform. Since then, Turkish literature reflected the socioeconomic conditions in Turkey with increasing variety. "Village Novel" genre appeared in the mid-1950s, which talked about difficulties faced from poverty.535 An example is Memed, My Hawk by Yaşar Kemal, which was Turkey's first Nobel Prize in Literature nominee in 1973.536537 Orhan Pamuk won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.538

Turkey has four "major theatrical traditions": "folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater." Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet and shadow plays, and storytelling performances. An example for shadow play is Karagöz and Hacivat. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.539

Turkey's visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as "decorative" and "fine" arts. Fine arts, or güzel sanatlar, includes sculpture and painting. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale by Sotheby's London was in 2009. Istanbul Modern and the Istanbul Biennial are examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such as ceramics and carpets. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics, calligraphy, paper marbling (ebru) are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.540

Music and dance

Main articles: Turkish folk dance and Music of Turkey

Although classifying genres of Turkish music can be problematic, three broad categories can be considered. These are "Turkish folk music", "Turkish art music", and multiple popular music styles. These Popular music styles include arabesque, pop, and Anatolian rock.541

The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as Ajda Pekkan, Sezen Aksu, Erol Evgin, MFÖ, Tarkan, Sertab Erener, Teoman, Kenan Doğulu, Levent Yüksel and Hande Yener. Internationally acclaimed Turkish jazz and blues musicians and composers include Ahmet Ertegun.542

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Turkey

See also: Ottoman architecture

Turkey is home to numerous Neolithic settlements, such as Çatalhöyük.543544 From the Bronze Age, important architectural remnants include Alaca Höyük and the 2nd layer of Troy.545 There are various examples of Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman architectures, especially in the Aegean region.546 Byzantine architecture dates back to the 4th century AD. Its best example is Hagia Sophia. Byzantine architectural style continued to develop after the conquest of Istanbul, such as Byzantine Revival architecture.547 During Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and Turkish principalities period, a distinct architecture emerged, which incorporated Byzantine and Armenian architectures with architectural styles found in West Asia and Central Asia.548 Seljuk architecture often used stones and bricks, and produced numerous caravanserais, madrasas and mausoleums.549

Ottoman architecture emerged in northwest Anatolia and Thrace. Early Ottoman architecture mixed "traditional Anatolian Islamic architecture with local building materials and techniques".550 Following the conquest of Istanbul, classical Ottoman architecture emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries.551 The most important architect of the classical period is Mimar Sinan, whose major works include the Şehzade Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, and Selimiye Mosque.552 Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by European elements, resulting in development of Ottoman baroque style.553 European influence continued in the 19th century; examples include works of Balyan family such as neo-Baroque style Dolmabahçe Palace.554 The last period of Ottoman architecture consists of the First National Architectural Movement, including works of Vedat Tek and Mimar Kemaleddin.555

Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned into modernist architecture. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas "Turkish house" type vernacular architecture influenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, "reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments" became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with "Turkish house style" have been in demand.556 In the 21st century, urban renewal projects have become a trend.557 Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects.558 Around one-third of Turkey's building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.559

Cuisine

Main article: Turkish cuisine

See also: Ottoman cuisine

Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically.560 Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian, Mediterranean, Iranian, Central Asian, and East Asian cuisines.561 Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, documents "the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine".562 Güveç, Bulgur, and Börek are some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even though kebab as a word comes from Persian, Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly, pilaf dishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works of Rumi and Evliya Çelebi. The latter describes "food-related guilds of Istanbul".563

Food staples in Turkey include bread and yogurt. Some of bread varieties are lavash and pide (a type of pita bread). Ayran is a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey, olive oil is used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients.564 Doner kebab, originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically.565 Seafood includes anchovy and others. Dolma varieties and mantı are made by stuffing vegetables or pasta.566 Sarma is made by rolling edible leaf over the filling.567 Yahni dishes are vegetable stews.568 Turkey is one of the countries with the meze tradition.569 Honey, pekmez, dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening.570 Filo is an originally Turkish dough that is used to make baklava.571 Turkish delight is a "delicate but gummy jelly".572

Sports

Main article: Sport in Turkey

See also: Football in Turkey

The most popular sport is association football.573 Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000.574 The Turkey national football team won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and UEFA Euro 2008.575

Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.576 The men's national basketball team and women's national basketball team have been successful. Anadolu Efes S.K. is the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions.577578 Fenerbahçe reached the final of the EuroLeague in three consecutive seasons (2015–2016, 2016–2017 and 2017–2018), becoming the European champions in 2017.

The final of the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.579 Fenerbahçe won the 2023 FIBA Europe SuperCup Women after two consecutive Euroleague wins in the 2022–23 and 2023–24 seasons.

The women's national volleyball team has won several medals.580 Women's volleyball clubs, namely VakıfBank S.K., Fenerbahçe and Eczacıbaşı, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.581

The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oil wrestling) since Ottoman times.582 Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.583584 In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such as Koca Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.585

Media and cinema

Main article: Media in Turkey

See also: Cinema of Turkey

Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.586587 The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available.588 The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.589590 By circulation, the most popular newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.591

Filiz Akın, Fatma Girik, Hülya Koçyiğit, and Türkan Şoray represent their period of Turkish cinema.592 Turkish directors like Metin Erksan, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yılmaz Güney, Zeki Demirkubuz and Ferzan Özpetek won numerous international awards such as the Palme d'Or and Golden Bear.593 Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.594 After sweeping the Middle East's television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen South and Central American countries in 2016.595596 Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.597598599

See also

  • Turkey portal

Notes

Sources

General

Tourism

Government

Economy

References

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  2. Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, Turkish: [ˈtyɾcije dʒumˈhuːɾijeti] ⓘ /wiki/Turkish_language ↩

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  6. Sagona & Zimansky 2015, p. 1 Howard 2016, p. xv McMahon & Steadman 2012a, pp. 3–12 Matthews 2012, p. 49 - Sagona, Antonio; Zimansky, Paul (2015). Ancient Turkey. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203880463. ISBN 978-1-134-44027-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=SsLKBgAAQBAJ ↩

  7. Ahmed 2006, p. 1576: "Turkey's diversity is derived from its central location near the world's earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium. Meanwhile, Turkish Thrace came to be dominated by another Indo-European group, the Thracians for whom the region is named." Steadman 2012, p. 234: "By the time of the Old Assyrian Colony period in the early second millennium b.c.e . (see Michel, chapter 13 in this volume) the languages spoken on the plateau included Hattian, an indigenous Anatolian language, Hurrian (spoken in northern Syria), and Indo-European languages known as Luwian, Hittite, and Palaic" Michel 2012, p. 327 Melchert 2012, p. 713 Howard 2016, p. 26 ↩

  8. Howard 2016, p. 29: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval. ... statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth." Ahmed 2006, p. 1576: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region" McMahon & Steadman 2012a, p. 5 McMahon 2012, p. 16 Sams 2012, p. 617 Kaldellis 2024, p. 26 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  9. Davison 1990, pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek." Howard 2016, pp. 33–44 - Davison, Roderic H. (1990). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. The University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/720640. ISBN 9780292720640. https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640 ↩

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  11. Howard 2016, p. 45 Somel 2010, p. xcvii - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

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  13. Kaser 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons" Fábos 2005, p. 437: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration.'" Schayegh, Cyrus (2024). "A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s". Journal of World History. 35 (4): 579–622. doi:10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172. Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus. Karpat 2001, p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries." Karpat 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..." Pekesen 2012: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51" Biondich 2011, p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans" Armour 2012, p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense." Bosma, Lucassen & Oostindie 2012a, p. 17: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this ‘repatriation’ – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic’s population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen" - Kaser, Karl (2011). The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History. Berlin Wien: LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-50190-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC ↩

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  16. Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2021). The Thirty-Year Genocide - Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674251434. 9780674251434 ↩

  17. Pamuk 2012, p. 50 Kayali 2008, p. 112 ↩

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  21. Berg, Miriam (2023). Turkish Drama Serials: The Importance and Influence of a Globally Popular Television Phenomenon. University of Exeter Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-80413-043-8. 978-1-80413-043-8 ↩

  22. Agoston & Masters 2009, p. 574 - Agoston, G; Masters, B (2009). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Facts On File, Incorporated. ISBN 9780816062591. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC ↩

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  61. The origin of Indo-European languages is unknown.[62] They may be native to Anatolia[63] or non-native.[64] ↩

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  78. "Anatolia – Greek colonies on the Anatolian coasts, c. 1180–547 bce". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 21 March 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2024. Before the Greek migrations that followed the end of the Bronze Age (c. 1200 BCE), probably the only Greek-speaking communities on the west coast of Anatolia were Mycenaean settlements at Iasus and Müskebi on the Halicarnassus peninsula and walled Mycenaean colonies at Miletus and Colophon. https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/Greek-colonies-on-the-Anatolian-coasts-c-1180-547-bce ↩

  79. Howard 2016, p. 27 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  80. Harl 2012, p. 760: "Greek cities on the shores of Asia Minor and on the Aegean islands were the nexus of trade and cultural exchange in the early Greek world, so Archaic Greek civilization was to a great extent the product of the Greek cities of Asia Minor." ↩

  81. Harl 2012, pp. 753–756 ↩

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  89. Howard 2016, p. 28 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  90. "The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2017. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/128/ ↩

  91. Howard 2016, p. 28 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  92. McMahon & Steadman 2012a, p. 5 ↩

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  95. Howard 2016, p. 29: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval." ... "statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth." - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  96. Mitchell 1995, pp. 3–4 - Mitchell, Stephen (1995). Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor Volume I: The Celts and the Impact of Roman Rule. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815029-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=RpjunQEACAAJ ↩

  97. Howard 2016, p. 29 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  98. Hoyos 2019, pp. 35–37 - Hoyos, Dexter (2019). Rome Victorious. The Irresistible Rise of the Roman Empire. I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78076-274-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=nCvloAEACAAJ ↩

  99. Hoyos 2019, pp. 62, 83, 115 - Hoyos, Dexter (2019). Rome Victorious. The Irresistible Rise of the Roman Empire. I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78076-274-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=nCvloAEACAAJ ↩

  100. Howard 2016, p. 30 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  101. Howard 2016, p. 30 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  102. Horrocks 2008, pp. 778–779: "Thus the majority of traditional 'Greek' lands, including the coastal areas of Asia Minor, remained essentially Greek-speaking, despite the superimposition of Latin and the later Slavic incursions into the Balkans during the sixth and seventh centuries. Even on the Anatolian plateau, where Hellenic culture had come only with Alexander's conquests, both the extremely heterogeneous indigenous populations and immigrant groups (including Celts, Goths, Jews, and Persians) had become heavily Hellenized, as the steady decline in epigraphic evidence for the native languages and the great mass of public and private inscriptions in Greek demonstrate. Though the disappearance of these languages from the written record did not entail their immediate abandonment as spoken languages,..." ↩

  103. van den Hout 2011, p. 1 - van den Hout, Theo (2011). The Elements of Hittite. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13300-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C ↩

  104. Uchiyama, Junzo; et al. (21 May 2020). "Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. Cambridge University Press: e16. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.11. PMC 10427466. PMID 37588381. Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10427466 ↩

  105. Uchiyama, Junzo; et al. (21 May 2020). "Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. Cambridge University Press: e16. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.11. PMC 10427466. PMID 37588381. To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10427466 ↩

  106. Lee 2023, p. 4: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The "Turks" intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11" Findley 2005, p. 18: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages." Golden, Peter B. (25 July 2018). "The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks". The Medieval History Journal. 21 (2): 291–327. doi:10.1177/0971945818775373. ISSN 0971-9458. S2CID 166026934. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2024."Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian [Saka] and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role." Lee, Joo-Yup; Kuang, Shuntu (18 October 2017). "A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples". Inner Asia. 19 (2). Brill: 197–239. doi:10.1163/22105018-12340089. ISSN 2210-5018. Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496 ↩

  107. Lee 2023, p. 84 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496 ↩

  108. Lee 2023, p. 84 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496 ↩

  109. Lee 2023, p. 84 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496 ↩

  110. Howard 2016, p. 34 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  111. Lee 2023, p. 84 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496 ↩

  112. Lee 2023, p. 90 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496 ↩

  113. Lee 2023, p. 91 - Lee, Joo-Yup (2023). The Turkic Peoples in World History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003256496. ISBN 978-1-000-90421-5. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003256496 ↩

  114. Howard 2016, p. 34 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  115. Peacock 2015, p. 9 - Peacock, A. C. S. (2015). The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3827-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=hAndCQAAQBAJ ↩

  116. Howard 2016, p. 34 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  117. Ahmed 2006, p. 1576: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region" ↩

  118. Davison 1990, pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek." - Davison, Roderic H. (1990). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. The University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/720640. ISBN 9780292720640. https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640 ↩

  119. Horrocks 2008, pp. 778–779: "Thus the majority of traditional 'Greek' lands, including the coastal areas of Asia Minor, remained essentially Greek-speaking, despite the superimposition of Latin and the later Slavic incursions into the Balkans during the sixth and seventh centuries. Even on the Anatolian plateau, where Hellenic culture had come only with Alexander's conquests, both the extremely heterogeneous indigenous populations and immigrant groups (including Celts, Goths, Jews, and Persians) had become heavily Hellenized, as the steady decline in epigraphic evidence for the native languages and the great mass of public and private inscriptions in Greek demonstrate. Though the disappearance of these languages from the written record did not entail their immediate abandonment as spoken languages,..." ↩

  120. Howard 2016, pp. 34–36 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  121. Howard 2016, p. 36 - Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ ↩

  122. Davison 1990, pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek." - Davison, Roderic H. (1990). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. The University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/720640. ISBN 9780292720640. https://doi.org/10.7560%2F720640 ↩

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  127. Leiser 2010, p. 303 ↩

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