A material is a substance or mixture that forms an object, which can be pure or impure, living or non-living. Materials are classified by their physical and chemical properties, geological origin, or biological function. The field of materials science studies their properties and applications. Raw materials undergo processing, including purification and shaping, or formation of new materials through chemical synthesis. In the industry, materials serve as inputs for various manufacturing processes, leading to products or complex materials.
Historical elements
Materials chart the history of humanity. The system of the three prehistoric ages (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age) were succeeded by historical ages: steel age in the 19th century, polymer age in the middle of the following century (plastic age) and silicon age in the second half of the 20th century.3
Classification by use
Materials can be broadly categorized in terms of their use, for example:
- Building materials are used for construction
- Building insulation materials are used to retain heat within buildings
- Refractory materials are used for high-temperature applications
- Nuclear materials are used for nuclear power and weapons
- Aerospace materials are used in aircraft and other aerospace applications
- Biomaterials are used for applications interacting with living systems
Material selection is a process to determine which material should be used for a given application.
Classification by structure
The relevant structure of materials has a different length scale depending on the material. The structure and composition of a material can be determined by microscopy or spectroscopy.
Microstructure
In engineering, materials can be categorised according to their microscopic structure:4: 15–17
- Plastics: a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient.
- Ceramics: non-metal, inorganic solids
- Glasses: amorphous solids
- Crystals: a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions.
- Metals: pure or combined chemical elements with specific chemical bonding behavior
- Alloys: a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is often a metal.
- Polymers: materials based on long carbon or silicon chains
- Hybrids: Combinations of multiple materials, for example composites.
Larger-scale structure
A metamaterial is any material engineered to have a property that is not found in naturally occurring materials, usually by combining several materials to form a composite and / or tuning the shape, geometry, size, orientation and arrangement to achieve the desired property.5
In foams and textiles, the chemical structure is less relevant to immediately observable properties than larger-scale material features: the holes in foams, and the weave in textiles.
Classification by properties
Main article: Material properties
Materials can be compared and classified by their large-scale physical properties.
Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties determine how a material responds to applied forces.
Examples include:
Thermal properties
Materials may degrade or undergo changes of properties at different temperatures. Thermal properties also include the material's thermal conductivity and heat capacity, relating to the transfer and storage of thermal energy by the material.
Other properties
Materials can be compared and categorized by any quantitative measure of their behavior under various conditions. Notable additional properties include the optical, electrical, and magnetic behavior of materials.6: 5–7
See also
- Hyle, the Greek term, relevant for the philosophy of matter
- Matter
- Category:Materials
External links
Look up material in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.References
"Definition of MATERIAL". Merriam-Webster. 2023-08-20. Retrieved 2023-08-29. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/material ↩
Korotya, Eugeniya. "Time-and-Materials vs Fixed Price: Which to Choose for Your Project?". Medium. Retrieved 27 March 2025. https://medium.com/@Eugeniya/time-and-materials-vs-fixed-price-which-to-choose-for-your-project-11dc6adc758b ↩
"Materials that shaped history | School of Materials Science and Engineering – UNSW Sydney". UNSW Sites. Retrieved 2023-08-29. https://www.unsw.edu.au/science/our-schools/materials/engage-with-us/high-school-students-and-teachers/materials-shaped-history ↩
Ashby, Michael; Shercliff, Hugh; Cebon, David (2010). Materials engineering, science, processing and design (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. ISBN 9781856178952. 9781856178952 ↩
Kshetrimayum, R.S. (January 2005). "A brief intro to metamaterials". IEEE Potentials. 23 (5): 44–46. doi:10.1109/MP.2005.1368916. ISSN 0278-6648. S2CID 36925376. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1368916 ↩
Ashby, Michael; Shercliff, Hugh; Cebon, David (2010). Materials engineering, science, processing and design (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. ISBN 9781856178952. 9781856178952 ↩