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Aletta Henriëtte Jacobs was a pioneering Dutch physician and women's suffrage activist, known as the first woman to attend a Dutch university and among the first female doctors in the Netherlands. In 1882, she founded the world's first birth control clinic, promoting women's health and education on hygiene and contraception. Throughout her life, Jacobs campaigned for improved working conditions, deregulation of prostitution, mandatory breaks for retail workers, and women's right to vote, which was achieved in 1919. Born in the mid-nineteenth century, she earned the first medical doctorate awarded to a woman in the Netherlands in 1879. Jacobs was active internationally, helping establish the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom and advocating for peace and equality worldwide.

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Early life and education (1854–1879)

Aletta Henriëtte Jacobs was born on 9 February 1854 in Sappemeer, the Netherlands, to Anna de Jongh and Abraham Jacobs.1 She was the eighth of 11 children, born into a family of assimilated Jewish heritage.23 Her father was a doctor from whom she developed an interest from a young age in the field of medicine.4 She attended the village school and learned needlecraft, completing her education in 1867. At the time, there were no educational opportunities for women apart from finishing schools. She enrolled in one and attended for two weeks, but found it to be "idiotic" and a waste of time.5 To continue her education, Jacobs worked as an apprentice dressmaker and studied at home, where her mother taught her French and German.6 In addition, her father taught her Greek and Latin.7

Wanting to become a doctor like her father, Jacobs faced challenges, as higher education in 19th-century Netherlands was not open to women students.8 A family friend, the hygienist Levy Ali Cohen, encouraged Jacobs to become a pharmacy assistant, after learning in 1869 that a woman had been allowed to take the examination. She prepared for the test, studying with her father; her brother Sam, who was a pharmacist; and Cohen, and passed in July 1870, earning a diploma.91011 She was encouraged by Cohen and Samuel Siegmund Rosenstein, rector of the University of Groningen, to continue her studies for two years in preparation for the entry examination for university.12 She received permission from J.W.A. Renssen, the director of the Rijks Hogere Burgerschool [nl] (National Higher Secondary School) in Sappemeer to sit in on classes, becoming the first Dutch woman to attend high school.131415 Learning that a male student who had passed his pharmacy examination was admitted to the university on the basis of his diploma,16 Jacobs wrote secretly to the chair of the Council of Ministers of the Netherlands, Johan Rudolph Thorbecke. She requested permission to begin her university studies prior to taking the entrance examination and was granted provisional approval by Thorbecke to attend as a one-year probationary student.171819

On 20 April 1871,20 Jacobs entered university, recognizing that other women's ability to pursue education would depend on her performance.21 When within months, news reached Jacobs' father that Thorbecke was mortally ill, Abraham insisted that his daughter be allowed to register without probation. On 30 May 1872, shortly after Thorbecke's death, Jacobs received the official notification of her admittance as a medical student. Despite periods of illness, she passed the preliminary part of her licensing examination on 12 April 1877 and the final test on 3 April 1878.22 Obtaining her state license to operate as a general practitioner in 1878, she began work on her doctoral thesis,23 Over localisatie van physiologische en pathologische verschijnselen in de groote hersenen (On the Localization of Physiological and Pathological Symptoms in the Cerebrum).2425 At the time, the brain had not been studied much and brain physiology was an unusual choice for a dissertation.26 Graduating on 8 March 1879, Jacobs was the first woman to attend a Dutch university, as well as the first Dutch woman to receive a medical degree in the country, and the first to obtain a medical doctorate.27282930

As news of her accomplishments appeared in newspapers throughout the country, Jacobs received numerous congratulatory letters. One came from a social reformer, Carel Victor Gerritsen,31 who encouraged her and made introductions on her behalf to other women physicians.32 Despite her father's disapproval, Jacobs and Gerritsen began a correspondence, though they would not meet for several years.33 After her graduation, she contributed to her education by observing women physicians at various London hospitals, including the Great Ormond Street Hospital, London School of Medicine for Women and New Hospital for Women,3435 where she met Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, the first woman medical practitioner in England, and her sister, Millicent Garrett Fawcett. Both women were deeply involved in the fight for women's suffrage as well as other social issues, including birth control.3637 She also met like-minded social reformers, including Annie Besant, Charles Bradlaugh, Charles Robert and George Drysdale, as well as Alice Vickery, who influenced her ideas on social reform.38

Early career (1879–1887)

Returning to the Netherlands in September 1879 to attend a medical conference in Amsterdam, Jacobs received so many requests for medical services that she decided not to return to England, but instead opened an independent practice on the Herengracht canal to treat women patients.394041 Her clinic, on the corner of Kattengat [nl] and Spuistraat [nl] was located in the Werkmansbond building. She was assisted by Cornélie Huygens42 in treating women and children, as women were not permitted to treat men.43 She grew increasingly concerned about the needs of working-class women and the poor conditions in which they lived and worked, realizing that impoverished women lacked knowledge of hygiene and child care. She began running biweekly clinics to advise them,44 but demand was so great she had to expand the sessions.45

From her work with poor women, Jacobs recognized that repeated pregnancies, year after year, was not only impacting mothers' health, but causing high rates of infant mortality.46 Her contact with prostitutes led her to learn about and study sexually transmitted diseases, of which she had not previously been aware.47 In developing solutions for these women, Jacobs became convinced that reliable contraception would alleviate suffering and economic hardship resulting from too many children. Furthermore, it would improve the social welfare of society at large, preventing overpopulation.4849 After reading an article by Wilhelm Mensinga [de] on occlusive pessaries, Jacobs wrote to him, embarking on a lengthy correspondence. Convinced that diaphragms would help her patients, she performed a clinical trial across a mixed sampling of her clients.50 Finding the trial was successful, she introduced the method of birth control (still widely known to English speakers as the Dutch Cap) in the Netherlands5152 and began counseling women on its use.53

In 1882, Jacobs founded the first birth control clinic in the Netherlands and the first clinic in the world devoted solely to disseminating information on the topic.54 In her twice-weekly clinics for the poor, which were well-attended, she provided birth control information and a contraceptive device – Dutch pessary,55 free of charge. This practice was widely criticized by other physicians, including Catharine van Tussenbroek, the second Dutch woman to earn a medical degree.56 Physicians who argued against contraception maintained that it interfered with the "divine plan",57 encouraged extramarital sex, and would have a negative impact on fecundity and national growth. They saw unwanted pregnancy and venereal disease as apt punishment for sin.58

In 1883, as the Parliamentary elections ensued,59 Jacobs learned from the liberal politician Samuel van Houten that women were not explicitly banned from voting, and she wrote a letter to the mayor and city council of Amsterdam, questioning why she was not included on the voter registration list. She included her evidence that she met all the requirements of a voter. She received a reply that while a narrow interpretation might indicate that women were not barred, custom required that she would need to challenge whether women were entitled to civil rights and full citizenship.6061 Jacobs appealed the decision to the Amsterdam District Court, which replied that women were not citizens. She then appealed to the Supreme Court, which ruled that as taxes for married women and children were paid by their husbands and fathers, the law was clear that women were not citizens entitled to vote, ignoring the fact that Jacobs paid taxes as an unmarried woman.6263 By 1884, Jacobs' relationship with Gerritsen had turned into a romance and the couple entered into a free marriage,64 though until 1886, Gerritsen lived in Amersfoort.65

Jacobs joined the Neo-Malthusian League of Holland and along with her husband, continued working to improve social conditions among the country's poor and working classes.6667 In addition to her work in hygiene and contraception, beginning in 1886, Jacobs campaigned for retail establishments to provide employees with benches where they could rest when they were not attending to customers.68 At the time it was common for female employees to spend more than 10 hours standing, causing major health and gynecological problems. Two decades later the matter of breaks was regulated in a law.69

Advised by a member of the Supreme Court that she might win a second appeal on women's suffrage, Jacobs initially considered continuing the fight, but in 1885 an amendment to the constitution was proposed by Minister Jan Heemskerk to add the word "man" to the electoral provisions. The Constitution of 1887, when it was adopted, explicitly granted voting rights only to male residents.7071

Activism (1888–1903)

In 1888, Gerritsen was involved in the founding of the progressive liberal Electoral Association Amsterdam and was elected to the City Council of Amsterdam.7273 He strongly supported universal suffrage, compulsory education and social reforms, such as the establishment of minimum wages and maximum working hours.74 In 1892 he helped found the Radical League,75 the first Dutch political party to admit women. He and Jacobs were both actively involved in the party, which besides universal suffrage advocated for separation of church and state.76 In part because they wanted to have children, the coupled decided to formalize their marriage77 and were legally wed on 28 April 1892.78 On 9 September 1893, Jacobs, who retained her own name after marriage, went into labor and delivered a son;7980 however, the baby lived only one day because of careless treatment by the midwife during the birth.8182 Though she was one of the founders of the Vereeniging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht (Association for Women's Suffrage) in 1894, she was unable to attend the founding meeting because of surgery following her child's birth.83 Around the same time, she closed her free clinics to the poor.84

Between 1880 and during most of the 1890s, Jacobs devoted her time to her medical practice and radical politics, publishing articles and traveling with Gerritsen.858687 She published articles in the Sociaal Weekblad defending the use of contraception88 and highlighting the problems retail workers experienced.89 In 1894, she published a campaign in several newspapers about the health of shop workers and the following year wrote an article on prostitution and sexually transmitted disease for the newspaper Amsterdammer. Her position focused on health education rather than moral judgment.90 In 1897, Jacobs published De Vrouw: Haar bouw en haar inwendige organen (The Woman: Her physique and her internal organs), which was an innovative text describing a woman's anatomy and complete reproductive system, with movable illustrative plates accompanied by explanatory texts.9192 The volume was republished six times between its initial appearance and 1921.93

Jacobs published Vrouwenbelangen: Drie vraagstukken van aktuelen aard (Women's interests: Three current issues) in 1899, which discussed economic independence for women, voluntary family planning and regulating prostitution.94 In the three articles, she argued in favor of the economic and political independence of women,95 as well as women's rights to plan their family size as a means of economic independence.96 In the third article, she criticized state regulation of prostitution, in part because they required prostitutes to register and undergo medical examination. She believed targeting sex workers without addressing the misconduct of their clients would be ineffective in combating the spread of venereal diseases.97 She attended the 1899 International Council of Women's 2nd Congress, held in London. It had a profound effect on her,98 and she began to consider focusing all of her efforts into securing voting rights for women, as a path to eliminate barriers to women in other areas.99 By 1900, the VvVk (Association for Women's Suffrage) had around 20,000 members.100

At the turn of the twentieth century in May 1900, together with Arnold Aletrino, Jacobs co-founded the Nederlandsche Vereeniging tot Bevordering der Belangen van Verpleegsters en Verplegers (Dutch Society to promote the interests of male and female nurses), bent on improving socio-economic opportunities for nurses. Between 1902 and 1912, she wrote articles on international nursing and served as an editor for Nosokomos, the society's journal.101102 Beginning in 1900, Jacobs published translations of feminist theory, such as Women and Economics by Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Women and Labor by Olive Schreiner (1910).103 In 1901, she and Gerritsen left the Radical League and joined the founders of the Vrijzinnig Democratische Bond (Free-thinking Democratic League). (She continued to be associated with the league, serving on its board from 1921 through 1927.) Jacobs also regularly published articles in Sociaal Weekblad addressing women's working conditions and was finally rewarded in 1903 when the National Bureau for Women's Work published a preliminary draft law to reform working conditions.104 Jacobs retired from her medical practice in 1903, thereafter devoting her time to women's suffrage,105 financing her efforts from the sale of her private library.106

Women's suffrage (1903–1919)

In 1903, Jacobs became president of the Vereeniging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht, holding the post for the next 16 years.107 In 1904, she traveled with her husband to Berlin to attend the Congress of the International Council of Women (ICW) and joined with the suffragists who broke off from the ICW at the conference to form the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (IWSA).108 As soon as the conference was over, the couple traveled to the United States and made a cross-country tour. Together they wrote Brieven uit en over Amerika (Letters from and about America), which was published in 1906.109110 During their travels, Gerritsen became ill and died in 1905 from cancer. After recovering from a depression caused by her loss, Jacobs resumed her suffrage work in 1906, touring with Carrie Chapman Catt through the Austro-Hungarian Empire.111

Jacobs spearheaded the organization of the 1908 IWSA Congress, the first to be held in the Netherlands.112 It took place in June in Amsterdam bringing international delegates to the city,113 spurring growth of the Dutch suffrage movement. In 1910, she traveled to South Africa, invited by activists who called on her organizational services. She toured from Cape Town to Johannesburg making speeches on suffrage, as well as hygiene, sanitation, prostitution and venereal diseases, while calling for universal sex education. In 1911, after the IWSA conference in Stockholm,114 Jacobs and Catt embarked on a 16-month tour to evaluate women's legal and social positions and encourage women to struggle for pertinent improvements. The trip took them to "South Africa, the Middle East, India, Ceylon, the Dutch East Indies, Burma, the Philippines, China and Japan". Jacobs financed the trip by writing articles about their adventures for the newspaper De Telegraaf.115116

In 1914, shortly after the start of World War I, Jacobs promoted holding the International Women's Congress in The Hague, given the country's neutrality. Intended as a forum for women from throughout the world to meet and discuss opposition to war,117 the meeting was chaired by the pacifist Jane Addams from Chicago.118 Coordinated by Jacobs, Mia Boissevain, and Rosa Manus, the conference, which opened on 28 April 1915,119 was attended by 1,136 participants from both neutral and non-belligerent nations,120 and resulted in the establishment of an organization which would become the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF).121 Jacobs became the vice-president of both the international organization and the Dutch chapter of WILPF.122 After the conference closed on 3 May 1915, Addams and Jacobs, along with Chrystal Macmillan, Rosika Schwimmer and Mien van Wulfften Palthe-Broese van Groenou123 and others, formed two delegations of women who were dispatched to meet European heads of state over the next several months. The women secured agreement from reluctant Foreign Ministers, who overall felt that such a body would be ineffective. Nevertheless, they agreed to participate, or not impede creation of a neutral mediating body, if other nations agreed and if US President Woodrow Wilson would initiate a body. In the midst of the war, Wilson refused.124125

In 1917 Dutch women obtained the right to stand in elections, though they could not vote. Jacobs stood as a candidate for the Vrijzinnig Democratische Bond in the election of 1918 and though she received more votes than any other woman candidate, she was not elected. Along with MP Henri Marchant, in 1918 Jacobs founded the journal, De opbouw, Democratisch Tijdschrift (The building, Democratic Magazine) in which she wrote several articles between 1918 and 1924. Marchant introduced a women's suffrage bill which was adopted in 1919,126 and signed by Queen Wilhelmina on 18 September 1919.127 Shortly thereafter, Jacobs resigned from the presidency of the Vereeniging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht.128

Later life (1919–1924)

Jacobs left Amsterdam and moved to The Hague after the suffrage fight was won in 1919.129 Thanks to the international reputation she had gained from the suffrage movement, Jacobs' role as a pioneer of contraception was drawn on by birth control activists in the United States, such as Margaret Sanger.130 Between 1922 and 1923, Jacobs served on the advisory board of the Voluntary Parenthood League, established by Mary Dennett. The following year, she was the guest of honor at the VPL's annual conference held in New York City.131

Having lost most of her money in poor investments, Jacobs was supported by her friend Mien van Wulfften Palthe-Broese van Groenou.132 Between 1923 and 1924, she worked on her autobiography, at her home on Van Aerssenstraat 46, refusing offers from family friends to reside with them, so that she could spread out her clippings and journals in her own home.133 After completing her autobiography she lived with the Broese van Groenou family.134 She continued to attend the conferences of the International Council of Women, International Alliance of Women and WILPF until her death.135

Death and legacy

Jacobs died on 10 August 1929 in Baarn,136 at the Badhotel [nl], while on holiday. After her cremation, her ashes were placed in the Broese van Groenou family mausoleum in Loenen op de Veluwe until 1931, when they were placed with her husband's ashes in the Westerveld Cemetery [nl] in Driehuis.137 The following year, Bernard Premsela opened a contraception advice center in Amsterdam named in her honor.138 In the Netherlands, there are numerous awards and institutes which bear her name, such as the Aletta Jacobs Prize granted by the University of Groningen and a college in Hoogezand-Sappemeer. There is a planetoid named after her and a plaque with her image is displayed on her former house in Amsterdam at 15 Tesselschadestraat.139140 Between 11 August 2009 and 28 January 2013 the Atria Institute on gender equality and women's history was known as the Aletta Institute for Women's History, in her honor.141142 Her personal papers are a part of the collections of the institute.143 Her life was adapted into film in 1995 as Aletta Jacobs: Het Hoogste Streven (The Highest Aspiration).144

In 1903, when she retired, Jacobs sold her collection of 2,000 books, magazines and pamphlets on women's history to the John Crerar Library in Chicago. The Crerar Library added English language volumes to her collection which mainly contained titles in Dutch, French and German, doubling the collection size. In 1954, the University of Kansas bought the Gerritsen Collection, which has volumes dating from the 16th century, but mainly focuses on women of the 19th and early-20th centuries.145 In particular, the collection contains works on anti-feminist views, education of women, the legal status of women throughout history, prostitution, sexual relations, suffrage, women's economic and employment history,146 and is considered a significant resource for primary materials of women's studies.147

At a time when married women were typically forced to relinquish their names and employment, Jacobs retained her own identity and continued to work outside her home, inspiring others to follow suit.148 Her pioneering birth control clinic preceded both Margaret Sanger's and Marie Stopes's clinics in the United States and England by more than three decades149 and her role in the contraception movement was influential in helping those women who followed in her footsteps,150151 in establishing clinics throughout Europe and the United States by the time of her death.152 Her campaigns regarding working conditions for women and the right to vote were successful in changing Dutch law,153 and her work in the peace movement led to the establishment of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.154 In assessing her own career, Jacobs wrote a letter to Catt in 1928:

I feel happy that I have seen the three great objects of my life come to fulfillment during my life … They were: the opening for women of all opportunities to study and to bring it into practice; to make Motherhood a question of desire, no more a duty; and the political equality for women.

— Memories (1996, p. 194)

See also

Selected works

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

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References

  1. Feinberg 2009. - Feinberg, Harriet (1 March 2009). "Aletta Henriette Jacobs". jwa.org. Brookline, Massachusetts: Jewish Women's Archive. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2015.Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. https://web.archive.org/web/20170702063138/https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jacobs-aletta-henriette ↩

  2. Bosch 2018. - Bosch, Mineke (13 June 2018). "Jacobs, Aletta Henriëtte (1854–1929)". huygens.knaw.nl (in Dutch). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands. Archived from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2018.Digitaal Vrouwenlexicon van Nederland. https://web.archive.org/web/20190101153626/http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/vrouwenlexicon/lemmata/data/Jacobs ↩

  3. Haire 1928, p. 172. - Haire, Norman (1928). Some More Medical Views on Birth Control. London, England: Cecil Palmer. OCLC 213743400. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.200481/page/n174?q=aletta+jacobs ↩

  4. Feinberg 2009. - Feinberg, Harriet (1 March 2009). "Aletta Henriette Jacobs". jwa.org. Brookline, Massachusetts: Jewish Women's Archive. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2015.Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. https://web.archive.org/web/20170702063138/https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jacobs-aletta-henriette ↩

  5. Jacobs 1996, p. 7. - Jacobs, Aletta (1996). Feinberg, Harriet; Wright, Annie (eds.). Memories: My Life as an International Leader in Health, Suffrage, and Peace (English ed.). New York, New York: Feminist Press. ISBN 978-1-558-61138-2. https://archive.org/details/memoriesmylifeas00jaco/page/7 ↩

  6. Jacobs 1996, pp. 8–9. - Jacobs, Aletta (1996). Feinberg, Harriet; Wright, Annie (eds.). Memories: My Life as an International Leader in Health, Suffrage, and Peace (English ed.). New York, New York: Feminist Press. ISBN 978-1-558-61138-2. https://archive.org/details/memoriesmylifeas00jaco/page/7 ↩

  7. Jacobs 1996, p. 9. - Jacobs, Aletta (1996). Feinberg, Harriet; Wright, Annie (eds.). Memories: My Life as an International Leader in Health, Suffrage, and Peace (English ed.). New York, New York: Feminist Press. ISBN 978-1-558-61138-2. https://archive.org/details/memoriesmylifeas00jaco/page/7 ↩

  8. Haire 1928, p. 172. - Haire, Norman (1928). Some More Medical Views on Birth Control. London, England: Cecil Palmer. OCLC 213743400. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.200481/page/n174?q=aletta+jacobs ↩

  9. Feinberg 2009. - Feinberg, Harriet (1 March 2009). "Aletta Henriette Jacobs". jwa.org. Brookline, Massachusetts: Jewish Women's Archive. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2015.Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. https://web.archive.org/web/20170702063138/https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jacobs-aletta-henriette ↩

  10. Bosch 2018. - Bosch, Mineke (13 June 2018). "Jacobs, Aletta Henriëtte (1854–1929)". huygens.knaw.nl (in Dutch). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands. Archived from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2018.Digitaal Vrouwenlexicon van Nederland. https://web.archive.org/web/20190101153626/http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/vrouwenlexicon/lemmata/data/Jacobs ↩

  11. Jacobs 1996, p. 9. - Jacobs, Aletta (1996). Feinberg, Harriet; Wright, Annie (eds.). Memories: My Life as an International Leader in Health, Suffrage, and Peace (English ed.). New York, New York: Feminist Press. ISBN 978-1-558-61138-2. https://archive.org/details/memoriesmylifeas00jaco/page/7 ↩

  12. Jacobs 1996, p. 13. - Jacobs, Aletta (1996). Feinberg, Harriet; Wright, Annie (eds.). Memories: My Life as an International Leader in Health, Suffrage, and Peace (English ed.). New York, New York: Feminist Press. ISBN 978-1-558-61138-2. https://archive.org/details/memoriesmylifeas00jaco/page/7 ↩

  13. Jacobs' sister Frederika later became the first girl admitted as a regular student to this same high school.[8] ↩

  14. Bosch 1997, p. 41. - Bosch, Mineke (1997). "Kies Exact! In Historisch Perspectief: Veranderende Visies op Meisjes-Onderwijs en de Exacte Vakken, 1650–1880" [Choose Exact! In Historical Perspective: Changing Visions on Girls Education and the Exact Courses, 1650–1880] (PDF). Gewina (in Dutch). 20 (4). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Erasmus Publishing: 184–210. ISSN 2213-0543. PMID 11625204. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 1 January 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20170820091236/https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/251386/559-2322-1-PB.pdf?sequence=2 ↩

  15. Windsor 2002, p. 107. - Windsor, Laura Lynn (2002). Women in Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-157-607-392-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=QtZtkf35CF0C ↩

  16. Jacobs 1996, p. 11. - Jacobs, Aletta (1996). Feinberg, Harriet; Wright, Annie (eds.). Memories: My Life as an International Leader in Health, Suffrage, and Peace (English ed.). New York, New York: Feminist Press. ISBN 978-1-558-61138-2. https://archive.org/details/memoriesmylifeas00jaco/page/7 ↩

  17. Bosch 2018. - Bosch, Mineke (13 June 2018). "Jacobs, Aletta Henriëtte (1854–1929)". huygens.knaw.nl (in Dutch). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands. Archived from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2018.Digitaal Vrouwenlexicon van Nederland. https://web.archive.org/web/20190101153626/http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/vrouwenlexicon/lemmata/data/Jacobs ↩

  18. Haire 1928, p. 172. - Haire, Norman (1928). Some More Medical Views on Birth Control. London, England: Cecil Palmer. OCLC 213743400. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.200481/page/n174?q=aletta+jacobs ↩

  19. Bosch 2008, p. 637. - Bosch, Mineke (2008). "Jacobs, Aletta (1854–1929)". In Smith, Bonnie G. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 637–638. ISBN 978-0-19-514890-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=EFI7tr9XK6EC&pg=PA637 ↩

  20. Jacobs 1996, p. 15. - Jacobs, Aletta (1996). Feinberg, Harriet; Wright, Annie (eds.). Memories: My Life as an International Leader in Health, Suffrage, and Peace (English ed.). New York, New York: Feminist Press. ISBN 978-1-558-61138-2. https://archive.org/details/memoriesmylifeas00jaco/page/7 ↩

  21. Windsor 2002, p. 107. - Windsor, Laura Lynn (2002). Women in Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-157-607-392-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=QtZtkf35CF0C ↩

  22. Bosch 2018. - Bosch, Mineke (13 June 2018). "Jacobs, Aletta Henriëtte (1854–1929)". huygens.knaw.nl (in Dutch). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands. Archived from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2018.Digitaal Vrouwenlexicon van Nederland. https://web.archive.org/web/20190101153626/http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/vrouwenlexicon/lemmata/data/Jacobs ↩

  23. Bosch 2008, p. 637. - Bosch, Mineke (2008). "Jacobs, Aletta (1854–1929)". In Smith, Bonnie G. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 637–638. ISBN 978-0-19-514890-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=EFI7tr9XK6EC&pg=PA637 ↩

  24. Bosch 2018. - Bosch, Mineke (13 June 2018). "Jacobs, Aletta Henriëtte (1854–1929)". huygens.knaw.nl (in Dutch). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands. Archived from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2018.Digitaal Vrouwenlexicon van Nederland. https://web.archive.org/web/20190101153626/http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/vrouwenlexicon/lemmata/data/Jacobs ↩

  25. Jacobs 1996, p. 30. - Jacobs, Aletta (1996). Feinberg, Harriet; Wright, Annie (eds.). Memories: My Life as an International Leader in Health, Suffrage, and Peace (English ed.). New York, New York: Feminist Press. ISBN 978-1-558-61138-2. https://archive.org/details/memoriesmylifeas00jaco/page/7 ↩

  26. Feinberg 2009. - Feinberg, Harriet (1 March 2009). "Aletta Henriette Jacobs". jwa.org. Brookline, Massachusetts: Jewish Women's Archive. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2015.Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. https://web.archive.org/web/20170702063138/https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jacobs-aletta-henriette ↩

  27. While Aletta Jacobs is recognized as the first "official female physician", in the 1620s and 1630s, Trijn Jacobs, who was a member of the surgeons' guild of Amsterdam, treated patients. Records in the archives indicate that her treatments went beyond those of a traditional midwife or herbalist and that she performed surgery for leg and uterine injuries.[14] ↩

  28. Bosch 2018. - Bosch, Mineke (13 June 2018). "Jacobs, Aletta Henriëtte (1854–1929)". huygens.knaw.nl (in Dutch). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands. Archived from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2018.Digitaal Vrouwenlexicon van Nederland. https://web.archive.org/web/20190101153626/http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/vrouwenlexicon/lemmata/data/Jacobs ↩

  29. Dekkers 2018. - Dekkers, Geertje (23 November 2018). "Niet Aletta Jacobs, maar Trijn Jacobs (geen familie) was eerste vrouwelijke 'arts' van Nederland". de Volkskrant (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 24 November 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181124220339/https://www.volkskrant.nl/nieuws-achtergrond/niet-aletta-jacobs-maar-trijn-jacobs-geen-familie-was-eerste-vrouwelijke-arts-van-nederland~b7761664/ ↩

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