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Sintashta culture
Bronze Age archaeological culture of the Southern Urals

The Sintashta culture, dating from c. 2200–1900 BCE in the Southern Urals, is a Bronze Age archaeological culture named after the Sintashta site in Russia’s Chelyabinsk Oblast. It is believed to mark the origin of the Indo-Iranian languages and to represent the eastward migration from the Corded Ware culture. Notably, the earliest known chariots were found in Sintashta burials, highlighting its influence on ancient warfare across the Old World. The culture is distinguished by intensive copper mining and bronze metallurgy, rare for a steppe society, as well as prominent militarism and numerous fortified settlements.

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Origin

Because of the difficulty of identifying the remains of Sintashta sites beneath those of later settlements, the culture was only distinguished in the 1990s from the Andronovo culture.20 It was then recognised as a distinct entity, forming part of the "Andronovo horizon". Koryakova (1998) concluded from their archaeological findings that the Sintashta culture originated from the interaction of the two precursors Poltavka culture and Abashevo culture. Allentoft et al. (2015) concluded from their genetic results that the Sintashta culture should have emerged from an eastward migration of peoples from the Corded Ware culture.21 In addition, Narasimshan et al. (2019) cautiously cite that "morphological data has been interpreted as suggesting that both Fedorovka and Alakul’ skeletons are similar to Sintashta groups, which in turn may reflect admixture of Neolithic forest HGs and steppe pastoralists, descendants of the Catacomb and Poltavka cultures".22

Sintashta emerged during a period of climatic change that saw the already arid Kazakh steppe region become even colder and drier. The marshy lowlands around the Ural and upper Tobol rivers, previously favoured as winter refuges, became increasingly important for survival. Under these pressures both Poltavka and Abashevo herders settled permanently in river valley strongholds, eschewing more defensible hill-top locations.23

Its immediate predecessor in the Ural-Tobol steppe was the Poltavka culture, an offshoot of the cattle-herding Yamnaya horizon that moved east into the region between 2800 and 2600 BCE. Several Sintashta towns were built over older Poltavka settlements or close to Poltavka cemeteries, and Poltavka motifs are common on Sintashta pottery.24

Sintashta material culture also shows the influence of the late Abashevo culture, derived from the Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture, a collection of Corded Ware settlements in the forest steppe zone north of the Sintashta region that were also predominantly pastoralist.25

Chronology

Radiocarbon dating indicates that the Sintashta culture dates to between c. 2200 and 1750 BCE,26[2]27 roughly contemporary with the associated Abashevo and Petrovka cultures.282930 Some authors date the Petrovka culture slightly later, from c. 1900 BCE.313233

In Cis-Urals, burial sites Berezovaya and Tanabergen II showed Sintashta culture established there c. 2290–1750 BCE (68.2% probability),3435 and the earliest values of this culture, in Trans-Urals, at the burial sites Sintashta II and Kamenny Ambar-5 (Kurgan 2) are c. 2200–2000 BCE.36

Chariots appear in southern Trans-Urals region in middle and late phases of the culture, c. 2050-1750 BC.37 According to Chechuskov & Epimakhov (2018) "chariot technology likely developed before the year 2000 BC in the Sintashta homeland, which is the Don–Volga interfluve."38

Blöcher et al. (2023) consider Sintashta-Petrovka period came to an end in Trans-Urals c. 1900–1800 BCE.39

Society

Sintashta settlements are estimated to have a population of between 200 and 700 individuals40 with economies that "heavily exploited domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats alongside horses with occasional hunting of wild fauna".41

Linguistic identity

Main articles: Proto-Indo-Iranian and Indo-Iranians

See also: Indo-Iranian languages

Anthony (2007) assumes that probably the people of the Sintashta culture spoke "Common Indo-Iranian". This identification is based primarily on similarities between sections of the Rigveda, a religious text which includes ancient Indo-Iranian hymns recorded in Vedic Sanskrit, and the funerary rituals of the Sintashta culture as revealed by archaeology.42 Some cultural similarities to the Sintashta culture have also been found in the Nordic Bronze Age of Scandinavia.43

There is linguistic evidence of interaction between Finno-Ugric and Indo-Iranian languages, showing influences from the Indo-Iranians into the Finno-Ugric culture.4445

From the Sintashta culture the Indo-Iranian followed the migrations of the Indo-Iranians to Anatolia, the Iranian plateau and the Indian subcontintinent.4647 From the 9th century BCE onward, Iranian languages also migrated westward with the Scythians back to the Pontic steppe where the Proto-Indo-Europeans came from.48

Warfare

The preceding Abashevo culture was already marked by endemic intertribal warfare;49 intensified by ecological stress and competition for resources in the Sintashta period. This drove the construction of fortifications on an unprecedented scale and innovations in military technique such as the invention of the war chariot. Increased competition between tribal groups may also explain the extravagant sacrifices seen in Sintashta burials, as rivals sought to outdo one another in acts of conspicuous consumption analogous to the North American potlatch tradition.50

Sintashta artefact types such as spearheads, trilobed arrowheads, chisels, and large shaft-hole axes were taken east.51 Many Sintashta graves are furnished with weapons, although the composite bow associated later with chariotry does not appear. Higher-status grave goods include chariots, as well as axes, mace-heads, spearheads, and cheek-pieces. Sintashta sites have produced finds of horn and bone, interpreted as furniture (grips, arrow rests, bow ends, string loops) of bows; there is no indication that the bending parts of these bows included anything other than wood.52 Arrowheads are also found, made of stone or bone rather than metal. These arrows are short, 50–70 cm long, and the bows themselves may have been correspondingly short.53

Sintashta culture, and the chariot, are also strongly associated with the ancestors of modern domestic horses, the DOM2 population. DOM2 horses originated from the Western Eurasia steppes, especially the lower Volga-Don, but not in Anatolia, during the late fourth and early third millennia BCE. Their genes may show selection for easier domestication and stronger backs.54

Metal production

The Sintashta economy came to revolve around copper metallurgy. Copper ores from nearby mines (such as Vorovskaya Yama) were taken to Sintashta settlements to be processed into copper and arsenical bronze. This occurred on an industrial scale: all the excavated buildings at the Sintashta sites of Sintashta, Arkaim and Ustye contained the remains of smelting ovens and slag.55 Around 10% of graves, mostly adult male, contained artifacts related to bronze metallurgy (molds, ceramic nozzles, ore and slag remains, metal bars and drops). However, these metal-production related grave goods rarely co-occur with higher-status grave goods. This likely means that those who engaged in metal production were not at the top of the social-hierarchy, even though being buried at a cemetery evidences some sort of higher status.56

Much of Sintashta metal was destined for export to the cities of the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) in Central Asia. The metal trade between Sintashta and the BMAC for the first time connected the steppe region to the ancient urban civilisations of the Near East: the empires and city-states of modern Iran and Mesopotamia provided a large market for metals. These trade routes later became the vehicle through which horses, chariots and ultimately Indo-Iranian-speaking people entered the Near East from the steppe.5758

Genetics

See also: Corded Ware culture § Genetics, Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture § Genetics, Andronovo culture § Genetics, and Srubnaya culture § Genetics

Allentoft et al. 2015 analyzed the remains of four individuals ascribed to the Sintastha culture. One male carried Y-haplogroup R1a and mt-J1c1b1a, while the other carried Y-R1a1a1b and mt-J2b1a2a. The two females carried U2e1e and U2e1h respectively.5960 The study found a close autosomal genetic relationship between peoples of Corded Ware culture and Sintashta culture, which "suggests similar genetic sources of the two," and may imply that "the Sintashta derives directly from an eastward migration of Corded Ware peoples."61 Sintashta individuals and Corded Ware individuals both had a relatively higher ancestry proportion derived from Central Europe, and both differed markedly in such ancestry from the population of the Yamnaya Culture and most individuals of the Poltavka Culture that preceded Sintashta in the same geographic region.62 Individuals from the Bell Beaker culture, the Únětice culture and contemporary Scandinavian cultures were also found to be closely genetically related to Corded Ware.63 A particularly high lactose tolerance was found among Corded Ware and the closely related Nordic Bronze Age.64 In addition, the study found samples from the Sintashta culture to be closely genetically related to the succeeding Andronovo culture.65

Narasimhan et al. 2019 analyzed the remains of several individuals associated with the Sintashta culture. mtDNA was extracted from two females buried at the Petrovka settlement. They were found to be carrying subclades of U2 and U5. The remains of fifty individuals from the fortified Sintastha settlement cemetery of Kamennyi Ambar-5 was analyzed. This was the largest sample of ancient DNA ever sampled from a single site. The Y-DNA from thirty males was extracted. Eighteen carried R1a and various subclades of it (particularly subclades of R1a-Z417): R1a-Z645 (4 individuals), R1a-Z93 (1), R1a-Z94 (1), R1a-Z2124 (4), R1a-Z2125 (1), R1a-FT287785 (1), R1a-Z2123 (1), and R1a-Y874* (1);66 five carried subclades of R1b (particularly subclades of R1b1a1a), two carried Q1a and a subclade of it, one carried I2a1a1a, and four carried unspecified R1 clades. The majority of mtDNA samples belonged to various subclades of U, while W, J, T, H and K also occurred. A Sintashta male buried at Samara was found to be carrying R1b1a1a2 and J1c1b1a. The authors of the study found the majority of Sintashta people (ca. 80%) to be closely genetically related to the people of the Corded Ware culture, the Srubnaya culture, the Potapovka culture, and the Andronovo culture. These were found to harbor mixed ancestry from the Yamnaya culture and peoples of the Central European Middle Neolithic, like the Globular Amphora culture.6768 The remaining sampled Sintashta individuals belonged to various ancestral types different from the majority population, with affinities to earlier populations such as Eneolithic samples collected at Khvalynsk and hunter-gatherers from Tyumen Oblast in western Siberia. This indicates that the Sintashta settlement of Kamennyi Ambar was a cosmopolitan site that united a genetically heterogenous population in a single social group.6970

Estimates based on DATES (Distribution of Ancestry Tracts of Evolutionary Signals) suggest that genetic characteristics typical of the Sintashta culture formed by c. 3200 BCE.71

Horse genetics

The dispersal of the DOM2 genetic lineage, believed to be the ancestor of all modern domesticated horses, is linked with the populations which preceded the Sintashta culture and their expansions. A genetic study published in 2021 suggests that these horses were selectively bred for desired traits including docility, stress tolerance, endurance running, and higher weight-carrying thresholds.72

See also

Notes

Sources

Further reading

  • Vasil'ev, I. B., P. F. Kuznetsov, and A. P. Semenova. "Potapovo Burial Ground of the Indo-Iranic Tribes on the Volga" (1994).

References

  1. /sɪnˈtɑːʃtə/; Russian: Синташтинская культура, romanized: Sintashtínskaya kultúra, pronounced [sʲɪntɐʂˈtʲinskəjə kʊlʲˈturə] /wiki/Help:IPA/English ↩

  2. Lindner 2020, p. 362: "The publication of new radiocarbon data series from selected burial sites in the South-eastern Urals has helped to establish a much more accurate chronology for the late Middle Bronze Age Sintashta-Petrovka complex". - Lindner, Stephan (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC". Antiquity. 94 (374): 361–380. doi:10.15184/aqy.2020.37. ISSN 0003-598X. https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2020.37 ↩

  3. Epimakhov, Zazovskaya & Alaeva 2023, p. 6: "The earliest values in the series refer to the Sintashta culture (Sintashta II [the early phase], Kamenny Ambar-5 [Kurgan 2])—2200–2000 calBC". - Epimakhov, Andrey; Zazovskaya, Elya; Alaeva, Irina (August 7, 2023). "Migrations and Cultural Evolution in the Light of Radiocarbon Dating of Bronze Age Sites in the Southern Urals". Radiocarbon: 1–15. doi:10.1017/RDC.2023.62. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/radiocarbon/article/migrations-and-cultural-evolution-in-the-light-of-radiocarbon-dating-of-bronze-age-sites-in-the-southern-urals/672AA3ADD1BB703CA632E3207A8AC0ED ↩

  4. Lindner 2020, p. 362: "[A] much more accurate chronology for the late Middle Bronze Age Sintashta-Petrovka complex". - Lindner, Stephan (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC". Antiquity. 94 (374): 361–380. doi:10.15184/aqy.2020.37. ISSN 0003-598X. https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2020.37 ↩

  5. Mallory & Mair 2008, p. 261. - Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2008). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500283721. https://books.google.com/books?id=lr62GwAACAAJ ↩

  6. Anthony 2007, pp. 408–411 - Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. ↩

  7. Lubotsky 2023, p. 259, "There is growing consensus among both archaeologists and linguists that the Sintashta–Petrovka culture (2100–1900 BCE) in the Southern Trans-Urals was inhabited by the speakers of Proto-Indo-Iranian". - Lubotsky, Alexander (2023). "Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Wagon Terminology and the Date of the Indo-Iranian Split". In Willerslev, Eske; Kroonen, Guus; Kristiansen, Kristian (eds.). The Indo-European Puzzle Revisited: Integrating Archaeology, Genetics, and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 257–262. ISBN 978-1-009-26175-3. Retrieved 2023-11-16. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/indoeuropean-puzzle-revisited/indoeuropean-and-indoiranian-wagon-terminology-and-the-date-of-the-indoiranian-split/ADBF07BCD6447A00E1B5E3EE4E128FA7 ↩

  8. Schmitt 1987: "The name Aryan is the self designation of the peoples of Ancient India and Ancient Iran who spoke Aryan languages, in contrast to the 'non-Aryan' peoples of those 'Aryan' countries." - Schmitt, Rüdiger (1987). "Aryans". Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. 2. Iranica Foundation. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans ↩

  9. Anthony 2007, p. 408. - Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. ↩

  10. Allentoft et al. 2015, "The close affinity we observe between peoples of Corded Ware and Sintashta cultures suggests similar genetic sources of the two. [...] Although we cannot formally test whether the Sintashta derives directly from an eastward migration of Corded Ware peoples or if they share common ancestry with an earlier steppe population, the presence of European Neolithic farmer ancestry in both the Corded Ware and the Sintashta, combined with the absence of Neolithic farmer ancestry in the earlier Yamnaya, would suggest the former being more probable. [...] The enigmatic Sintashta culture near the Urals bears genetic resemblance to Corded Ware and was therefore likely to be an eastward migration into Asia. As this culture spread towards Altai it evolved into the Andronovo culture". - Allentoft, Morten E.; et al. (June 11, 2015). "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia". Nature. 522 (7555). Nature Research: 167–172. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..167A. doi:10.1038/nature14507. PMID 26062507. S2CID 4399103. https://depot.ceon.pl/handle/123456789/13155 ↩

  11. Mathieson 2015, Supplementary material: "Sintashta and Andronovo populations had an affinity to more western populations from central and northern Europe like the Corded Ware and associated cultures. [...] the Srubnaya/Sintashta/Andronovo group resembled Late Neolithic/Bronze Age populations from mainland Europe.". - Mathieson, Iain (November 23, 2015). "Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians". Nature. 528 (7583). Nature Research: 499–503. Bibcode:2015Natur.528..499M. doi:10.1038/nature16152. PMC 4918750. PMID 26595274. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4918750 ↩

  12. Narasimhan et al. 2019, Supplementary Materials: "We observed a main cluster of 41 Sintashta individuals that was genetically similar to Srubnaya, Potapovka, and Andronovo in being well modeled as a mixture of Yamnaya-related and Anatolia_N (European farmer-related) ancestry" (p.40) [...] "Additional work has documented genetic similarity of people of the Corded Ware Complex to those of both the Sintashta and Srubnaya archaeological cultures of the western Steppe" (p.243). - Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; et al. (September 6, 2019). "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia". Science. 365 (6457). American Association for the Advancement of Science: eaat7487. bioRxiv 10.1101/292581. doi:10.1126/science.aat7487. PMC 6822619. PMID 31488661. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6822619 ↩

  13. Chintalapati, Patterson & Moorjani 2022, p. 13: "[T]he CWC expanded to the east to form the archaeological complexes of Sintashta, Srubnaya, Andronovo, and the BA cultures of Kazakhstan.". - Chintalapati, Manjusha; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya (July 18, 2022). "The spatiotemporal patterns of major human admixture events during the European Holocene". eLife. 11 (11): e77625. doi:10.7554/eLife.77625. PMC 9293011. PMID 35635751. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9293011 ↩

  14. Chechushkov, I.V.; Epimakhov, A.V. (2018). "Eurasian Steppe Chariots and Social Complexity During the Bronze Age". Journal of World Prehistory. 31 (4): 435–483. doi:10.1007/s10963-018-9124-0. S2CID 254743380. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10963-018-9124-0 ↩

  15. Raulwing, Peter (2000). Horses, Chariots and Indo-Europeans – Foundations and Methods of Chariotry Research from the Viewpoint of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. Archaeolingua Alapítvány, Budapest. ISBN 9789638046260. 9789638046260 ↩

  16. Anthony 2007, p. 402, "Eight radiocarbon dates have been obtained from five Sintashta culture graves containing the impressions of spoked wheels, including three at Sintashta (SM cemetery, gr. 5, 19, 28), one at Krivoe Ozero (k. 9, gr. 1), and one at Kammeny Ambar 5 (k. 2, gr. 8). Three of these (3760 ± 120 BP, 3740 ± 50 BP, and 3700 ± 60 BP), with probability distributions that fall predominantly before 2000 BCE, suggest that the earliest chariots probably appeared in the steppes before 2000 BCE (table 15.1 [p. 376]).". - Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. ↩

  17. Holm, Hans J. J. G. (2019): The Earliest Wheel Finds, their Archeology and Indo-European Terminology in Time and Space, and Early Migrations around the Caucasus. Series Minor 43. Budapest: ARCHAEOLINGUA ALAPÍTVÁNY. ISBN 978-615-5766-30-5 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  18. Hanks & Linduff 2009. - Hanks, B.; Linduff, K. (2009). "The Sintashta Genesis: The Roles of Climate Change, Warfare, and Long-Distance Trade". In Hanks, B.; Linduff, K. (eds.). Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals, and Mobility. Cambridge University Press. pp. 146–167. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511605376.005. ISBN 978-0-511-60537-6. https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511605376.005 ↩

  19. Semyan, Ivan, and Spyros Bakas, (2021). "Archaeological Experiment on Reconstruction of the 'Compound' Bow of the Sintashta Bronze Age Culture from the Stepnoe Cemetery", in EXARC Journal Issue 2021/2, Introduction. https://exarc.net/issue-2021-2/ea/reconstruction-compound-bow-sintashta ↩

  20. Koryakova 1998a. - Koryakova, L. (1998a). "Sintashta-Arkaim Culture". The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Archived from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20190228104055/http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html ↩

  21. Allentoft et al. 2015. - Allentoft, Morten E.; et al. (June 11, 2015). "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia". Nature. 522 (7555). Nature Research: 167–172. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..167A. doi:10.1038/nature14507. PMID 26062507. S2CID 4399103. https://depot.ceon.pl/handle/123456789/13155 ↩

  22. Narasimhan et al. 2019, Supplementary Information, p. 62: "Morphological data has been interpreted as suggesting that both Fedorovka and Alakul' skeletons are similar to Sintashta groups, which in turn may reflect admixture of Neolithic forest HGs and steppe pastoralists, descendants of the Catacomb and Poltavka cultures.". - Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; et al. (September 6, 2019). "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia". Science. 365 (6457). American Association for the Advancement of Science: eaat7487. bioRxiv 10.1101/292581. doi:10.1126/science.aat7487. PMC 6822619. PMID 31488661. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6822619 ↩

  23. Anthony 2007, pp. 390–391 - Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. ↩

  24. Anthony 2007, pp. 386–388. - Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. ↩

  25. Anthony 2007, pp. 386–388. - Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. ↩

  26. Chernykh 2009, p. 136, "[T]he Sintashta culture provides 44 dates, the Abashevo 22 dates, and Petrovka 9, [...] the range of probability (68%), [...] the Abashevo-Sintashta chronological range [is] between the twenty-second and the eighteenth-seventeenth centuries BCE". - Chernykh, Evgenii N. (2009). "Formation of the Eurasian Steppe Belt Cultures: Viewed through the Lens of Archaeometallurgy and Radiocarbon Dating". In Hanks, Bryan K.; Linduff, Katheryn M. (eds.). Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals, and Mobility. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–145. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511605376.009. ISBN 978-0-511-60537-6. https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511605376.009 ↩

  27. Grigoriev 2021, p. 27: "[I]f the entire sampling of Sintashta dates falls within the range of 2200–1650 BC (with the presence of clearly unreliable earlier dates), which, in general, corresponds to the Abashevo dates (Chernykh, 2007, p. 86), when using mainly AMS dates, we get a more correct interval of 2010–1770 BC (Molodin et al., 2014, p. 140)". - Grigoriev, Stanislav (April 1, 2021). "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age". Open Archaeology. 7: 3–36. doi:10.1515/opar-2020-0123. S2CID 233015927. https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopar-2020-0123 ↩

  28. Chernykh 2009, pp. 128–133. - Chernykh, Evgenii N. (2009). "Formation of the Eurasian Steppe Belt Cultures: Viewed through the Lens of Archaeometallurgy and Radiocarbon Dating". In Hanks, Bryan K.; Linduff, Katheryn M. (eds.). Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals, and Mobility. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–145. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511605376.009. ISBN 978-0-511-60537-6. https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511605376.009 ↩

  29. Grigoriev 2021. - Grigoriev, Stanislav (April 1, 2021). "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age". Open Archaeology. 7: 3–36. doi:10.1515/opar-2020-0123. S2CID 233015927. https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopar-2020-0123 ↩

  30. Degtyareva & Kuzminykh 2022, Abstract: "Recently introduced in the scientific discourse 27 AMS 14C dates (settlement of Stepnoe and burial grounds of Stepnoe 1, 7 and 25) established an earlier interval of the Petrovka series — 2133–1631 BCE and point to the [synchronicity] of the cultures at the northern periphery of the Sintashta area in the local microregion of the Southern Trans-Urals". - Degtyareva, A. D.; Kuzminykh, S. V. (December 2022). "Metal tools of the Petrovka Culture of the Southern Trans-Urals and Middle Tobol: chemical and metallurgical characteristics". Сетевое издание. 4 (59). doi:10.20874/2071-0437-2022-59-4-3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366346128_Metal_tools_of_the_Petrovka_Culture_of_the_Southern_Trans-Urals_and_Middle_Tobol_chemical_and_metallurgical_characteristics ↩

  31. Grigoriev 2021. - Grigoriev, Stanislav (April 1, 2021). "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age". Open Archaeology. 7: 3–36. doi:10.1515/opar-2020-0123. S2CID 233015927. https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopar-2020-0123 ↩

  32. Lindner 2020, p. 364, "Indeed, a new radiocarbon series has confirmed the position of the Petrovka stage in the nineteenth to eighteenth centuries BC (Krause et al. 2019). Recent research at the enclosed settlement of Kamennyj Ambar in the Karagajly Ajat River valley (Chelyabinsk Oblast) supports this stratigraphic evidence, based on the existence of different occupation phases....". - Lindner, Stephan (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC". Antiquity. 94 (374): 361–380. doi:10.15184/aqy.2020.37. ISSN 0003-598X. https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2020.37 ↩

  33. Kuzminykh et al. 2023, p. 53: "Tools and weapons made of copper and bronze from the Petrovka Culture of the Northern Kazakhstan of the 19th–18th centuries BC are presented, originating mainly from sites complexes explored in the 70–80s 20th century G.B. Zdanovich and S. I. Zdanovich". - Kuzminykh, S. V.; et al. (December 2023). "Non-ferrous metal tool complex of the Petrovka Culture of Northern Kazakhstan: morphologi-cal and typological characteristics". Сетевое издание (in Russian). 63 (4). doi:10.20874/2071-0437-2023-63-4-4. ISSN 2071-0437. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376551751_Non-ferrous_metal_tool_complex_of_the_Petrovka_Culture_of_Northern_Kazakhstan_morphologi-cal_and_typological_characteristics ↩

  34. Tkachev 2020, point 28: "[A] graph was constructed with a wide dating range of 2290–1750 BCE [68.2%, 1-sigma], 2480–1430 BCE [95.4%, 2-sigma]. It is noteworthy that the early trail of this interval is formed by dates from the burial ground at Mount Berezovaya and the Tanabergen II burial: 7/23 (Le-8840). The late group is formed by dates from Tanabergen II burials: 7/22, 30, 36 (Le-9675, Le-8841, Le-8842)". - Tkachev, Vitaly V. (June 29, 2020). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Sintashta Culture Sites in the Steppe Cis-Urals". Russian Archaeology (2): 31–44. doi:10.31857/S086960630009071-7. S2CID 226535663. https://ras.jes.su/ra/s086960630009071-7-1-en ↩

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