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Science and technology in India

After independence, Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first prime minister, initiated reforms to boost education and technology. The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were established starting in 1951 at Kharagpur and expanded to cities like Bombay and Delhi, alongside Regional Engineering Colleges, now known as National Institutes of Technology. Strong ties with the Soviet Union aided the growth of the Indian Space Research Organisation and nuclear power, culminating in the 1974 nuclear test at Pokhran. Despite growth in publications and spending—US$17.2 billion by 2020–2021—India remains behind developed nations in researchers per capita and innovation, ranked 39th in the Global Innovation Index 2024.

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History

For the history of science and technology in pre-Independence India, see History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent.

1947–1967

India aimed "to convert India's economy into that of a modern state and to fit her into the nuclear age and do it quickly."11 It was understood that India had not been at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, and hence made an effort to promote higher education, and science and technology in India.12

The Planning Commission (1950) fixed investment levels, prescribed priorities, divided funds between agriculture and industry, and divided resources between the state and the federal governments.13 The result of the efforts between 1947 and 1962 saw the area under irrigation increase by 45 million acres (180,000 km2), food production rise by 34 million metric tons, installed power generating capacity increase by 79 million kilowatts, and an overall increase of 94 percent in industrial production.14 The enormous population rise, however, would balance the gains.15 The economically beleaguered country was nevertheless able to build a large scientific workforce, second in numbers only to that of the United States and the Soviet Union.16

Education—provided by the government of India—was free and compulsory up to the Age of 14.17 More emphasis was paid to the enhancement of vocational and technical skills.18 J.P. Naik, member-secretary of the Indian Education Commission, commented on the educational policies of the time:19

The main justification for the larger outlay on educational reconstruction is the hypothesis that education is the most important single factor that leads to economic growth [based on] the development of science and technology.

On 18 August 1951 the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, inaugurated the Indian Institute of Technology at Kharagpur in West Bengal.20 Possibly modeled after the Massachusetts Institute of Technology these institutions were conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs under the chairmanship of N.R. Sarkar.21

The Sino-Indian war (1962) came as a rude awakening to military preparedness.22 Military cooperation with the Soviet Union—partially aimed at developing advanced military technology—was pursued during subsequent years.23 The Defence Research and Development Organisation was formed in 1958.

Radio broadcasting was initiated in 1927 but became state responsibility only in 1930.24 In 1947 it was given the name All India Radio and since 1957 it has been called Akashvani.25 Limited duration of television programming began in 1959, and complete broadcasting followed in 1965.26

The Indian Government acquired the EVS EM computers from the Soviet Union, which were used in large companies and research laboratories.27

1967–1985

The roots of nuclear power in India lie in the early acquisition of nuclear reactor technology from several western countries, particularly the American support for the Tarapur Atomic Power Station and Canada's CANDU reactors.28 The peaceful policies of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi may have delayed the inception of nuclear technology in India.29

Stanley Wolpert (2008) describes the measures taken by the Indian government to increase agricultural output:30

The Indian space program received only financial support from the Soviet Union, which helped the Indian Space Research Organisation achieve aims such as establishing the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, launching remote sensing satellites, developing India's first satellite—Aryabhatta, and sending astronauts into space.31 India sustained its nuclear program during the aftermath of Operation Smiling Buddha, the country's first nuclear tests.32

Though the roots of the Steel Authority of India Ltd. lie in Hindustan Steel Private Limited (1954), the events leading up to the formation of the modern avatar are described below:33

The Ministry of Steel and Mines drafted a policy statement to evolve a new model for managing industry. The policy statement was presented to the Parliament on 2 December 1972. On this basis, the concept of creating a holding company to manage inputs and outputs under one umbrella was mooted. This led to the formation of Steel Authority of India Ltd. The company, incorporated on 24 January 1973 with an authorized capital of Rs. 2000 crore, was made responsible for managing five integrated steel plants at Bhilai, Bokaro, Durgapur, Rourkela and Burnpur, the Alloy Steel Plant and the Salem Steel Plant. In 1978 SAIL was restructured as an operating company.

In 1981, the Indian Antarctic Programme was started when the first Indian expedition was flagged off for Antarctica from Goa. More missions were subsequently sent each year to India's base Dakshin Gangotri.34

1986–1990

Indian agriculture benefited from the developments made in the field of biotechnology, for which the Department of Biotechnology was created in 1986 under the Ministry of Science and Technology.35 Both the Indian private sector and the government have invested in the medical and agricultural applications of biotechnology.36 Massive biotech parks were established in India while the government provided tax deduction for research and development under biotechnological firms.37

1991–2000

The Indian economy underwent economic reforms in 1991, leading to a new era of globalisation and international economic integration.38 Economic growth of over 6% annually was seen between 1993 and 2002.39 In the same year a new permanent Antarctic base Maitri was founded and remains in operation till today.40

2001–present

On 25 June 2002, India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology.41 A joint EU-India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development.42 India holds Associate Member State status at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), while a joint India-EU Software Education and Development Centre is due at Bangalore.43 Certain scientists and activists, such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) systems scientist VA Shiva Ayyadurai, blame caste for holding back innovation and scientific research in India, making it difficult to sustain progress while regressive social organisation prevails.44 In addition, corruption and inefficiencies in the research sector have resulted in corruption scandals and undermine innovation initiatives.45

Bangalore is considered to be the technological capital of India.46 IT, biotechnology, aerospace, nuclear science, manufacturing technology, automobile engineering, chemical engineering, ship building, space science, electronics, computer science and other medical science related research and development are occurring on a large scale in the country.

In 2017, India became an associate member of European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).

India's science and technology policy

The Government of India has passed four policy documents on science and technology:47

  • Science Policy Resolution 1958
  • Technology Policy Statement 1983
  • Science and Technology Policy 2003
  • Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy 2013

The fifth policy, the National Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy, is in the draft and public consultation stage.48

Space exploration

Mars Orbit Mission

Main article: Mars Orbiter Mission

The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called "Mangalyaan",49 was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).505152 It is India's first interplanetary mission,53 making ISRO the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA, and the European Space Agency.54 The first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit and the first nation to do so on its first attempt was India.555657

Chandrayaan programme

Main article: Chandrayaan programme

See also: Chandrayaan-1, Chandrayaan-2, and Chandrayaan-3

On 18 November 2008, the Moon Impact probe was released from Chandrayaan-1 at a height of 100 km (62 mi). During its 25-minute descent, Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE) recorded evidence of water in 650 mass spectra readings gathered during this time.58 On 24 September 2009 Science journal reported that the Chandrayaan-1 had detected water ice on the Moon.59

Chandrayaan-2 was launched on 22 July 2019. It was a partial success: The team wanted to send an additional lander with rover Vikram with the original orbiter in it, to mark India's terrestrial presence on Moon, but the signal connection was lost about 2.1 km (1.3 mi) above the lunar surface. Over several months the team tried to resume contact with lander, but ended up with no success. Later, by the late February 2020, it was claimed that an Indian software engineer from Chennai living in USA studied the NASA data of the proposed crash site and found the Lander.

Chandrayaan-3 is the next planned mission of sending only the lander with rover inside on the Moon, with the Japan's JAXA. It was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Gaganyaan

Gaganyaan is a future planned, "in development process" space module to send the Indian astronauts into space, who are being trained in Russia. The plan is to establish a new "space station" other than the ISS. India has kept itself from being part of the program, to show its "self reliance". The program was also, delayed due to the pandemic of COVID-19.

Thirty Meter Telescope

Main article: Thirty Meter Telescope

The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a planned, eighteen story, astronomical observatory and extremely large telescope to be built on the summit of Mauna Kea in the state of Hawaii. The TMT is designed for near-ultraviolet to mid-infrared (0.31 to 28 μm wavelength) observations, featuring adaptive optics to assist in correcting image blur. The TMT will be at the highest altitude of all the proposed Extremely Large Telescopes (ELT). The telescope has government-level support from several R&D spending nations: China, Japan, Canada and India.

Institutions and facilities

Science academies in India

The idea of science academies in India has evolved along with the Indian independence movement. The three major science academies; Indian National Science Academy, Indian Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences, India were all founded in the pre-independence era (pre-1947) between 1930 and 1935.

Indian Academy of Sciences

Also colloquially referred to as the "Bangalore Academy", Indian Academy of Sciences (IAS) was founded in 1934 by C. V. Raman, a Nobel laureate in physicis of his time in Bangalore (now Bengaluru), Karnataka (formerly known as the State of Mysore), India.60⠀⠀

National Academy of Sciences, India

The founder and first president of the National Academy of Sciences, India (NASI) was Meghnad Saha in 1930 in Allahabad (Prayag), Uttar Pradesh, India.61

Indian National Science Academy

Founded in 1935 based on a proposal by the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) and National Institute of Science of India (NISI) with Meghnad Saha's blessings,62 Indian National Science Academy (INSA) is based in New Delhi, India. According to its charter, the historical aim of INSA was to be similar to the Royal Society, London, a gathering of learned people to exchange ideas and further science.

Biosafety facilities in India

Performance of Indian students in International Science Olympiads

India's rank based on number of Gold Medals in last 10 years (2014–2023):

See also

  • India portal
  • Science portal
  • Technology portal
Citations Bibliography
  • Alexander, Steve. E-Commerce. (2006: from Computers and Information Systems). Encyclopædia Britannica 2008.
  • Desai, Ashok V. (2006). "Information and other Technology Development" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 269–273. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
  • Ketkar, Prafulla (2006). "European Union, Relations with (Science and technology)" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 48–51. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
  • Khan, Sultanat Aisha (2006). "Russia, relations with" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 419–422. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
  • Prabhu, Joseph (2006). "Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 23–27. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
  • Raja, Rajendran (2006). "Nuclear weapons testing and development" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 253–254. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
  • Sankar, U.(2007). The Economics of India's Space Programme, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. ISBN 978-0-19-568345-5.
  • Sharma. Shalendra D.(2006). "Biotechnology Revolution" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 154–157. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31350-2.
  • Sharma, Shalendra D. (2006). "Globalization" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 146–149. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
  • Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (2008). India. Encyclopædia Britannica.
  • Vrat, Prem (2006). "Indian Institutes of Technology" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert. 229–231. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0
  • Wolpert, Stanley (2008). India. Encyclopædia Britannica.

Further reading

Policy Wikimedia Commons has media related to Science and technology in India.

References

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