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Definitions

"Postmodernism" is "a highly contested term",¹ referring to "a particularly unstable concept",² that "names many different kinds of cultural objects and phenomena in many different ways".³ It may be described simply as a general mood or Zeitgeist.⁴⁵⁶

Although postmodernisms are generally united in their effort to transcend the perceived limits of modernism, "modernism" also means different things to different critics in various arts.⁷ Further, there are outliers on even this basic stance; for instance, literary critic William Spanos conceives postmodernism not in period terms but in terms of a certain kind of literary imagination so that pre-modern texts such as Euripides' Orestes or Cervantes' Don Quixote count as postmodern.⁸

According to scholar Louis Menand, "Postmodernism is the Swiss Army knife of critical concepts. It's definitionally overloaded, and it can do almost any job you need done."⁹ From an opposing perspective, media theorist Dick Hebdige criticized the vagueness of the term, enumerating a long list of otherwise unrelated concepts that people have designated as postmodernism, from "the décor of a room" or "a 'scratch' video", to fear of nuclear armageddon and the "implosion of meaning", and stated that anything that could signify all of those things was "a buzzword".¹⁰

All this notwithstanding, scholar Hans Bertens offers the following:

If there is a common denominator to all these postmodernisms, it is that of a crisis in representation: a deeply felt loss of faith in our ability to represent the real, in the widest sense. No matter whether they are aesthestic [sic], epistemological, moral, or political in nature, the representations that we used to rely on can no longer be taken for granted.¹¹

In practical terms, postmodernisms share an attitude¹²¹³ of skepticism towards grand explanations and established ways of doing things. In art, literature, and architecture, this attitude blurs boundaries between styles and genres, and encourages freely mixing elements, challenging traditional distinctions like high art versus popular art.¹⁴ In science, it emphasizes multiple ways of seeing things, and how our cultural and personal backgrounds shape how we see the world, making it impossible to be completely objective.¹⁵ In philosophy, education, history, politics, and many other fields, it encourages critical re-examination of established institutions and social norms, embracing diversity, and breaking down disciplinary boundaries.¹⁶¹⁷ Though these ideas weren't strictly new, postmodernism amplified them, using an often playful, at times deeply critical, attitude of pervasive skepticism to turn them into defining features.¹⁸¹⁹

Historical overview

Two broad cultural movements, modernism and postmodernism, emerged in response to profound changes in the Western world. The Industrial Revolution, urbanization, secularization, technological advances, two world wars, and globalization deeply disrupted the social order. Modernism emerged in the late 1800s, seeking to redefine fundamental truths and values through a radical rethinking of traditional ideas and forms across many fields. Postmodernism emerged in the mid-20th century with a skeptical perspective that questioned the notion of universal truths and reshaped modernist approaches by embracing the complexity and contradictions of modern life.²⁰²¹²²

The term "postmodernism" first appeared in print in 1870,²³²⁴ but it only began to enter circulation with its current range of meanings in the 1950s—60s.²⁵²⁶²⁷

Early appearances

The term "postmodern" was first used in 1870 by the artist John Watkins Chapman, who described "a Postmodern style of painting" as a departure from French Impressionism.²⁸²⁹ Similarly, the first citation given by the Oxford English Dictionary is dated to 1916, describing Gus Mager as "one of the few 'post' modern painters whose style is convincing".³⁰

Episcopal priest and cultural commentator J. M. Thompson, in a 1914 article, uses the term to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion, writing, "the raison d'être of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition".³¹ In 1926, Bernard Iddings Bell, president of St. Stephen's College and also an Episcopal priest, published Postmodernism and Other Essays, which marks the first use of the term to describe an historical period following modernity.³²³³ The essay criticizes lingering socio-cultural norms, attitudes, and practices of the Enlightenment. It is also critical of a purported cultural shift away from traditional Christian beliefs.³⁴³⁵³⁶

The term "postmodernity" was first used in an academic historical context as a general concept for a movement by Arnold J. Toynbee in a 1939 essay, which states that "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918".³⁷

In 1942, the literary critic and author H. R. Hays describes postmodernism as a new literary form.³⁸ Also in the arts, the term was first used in 1949 to describe a dissatisfaction with the modernist architectural movement known as the International Style.³⁹

Although these early uses anticipate some of the concerns of the debate in the second part of the 20th century, there is little direct continuity in the discussion.⁴⁰ Just when the new discussion begins, however, is also a matter of dispute. Various authors place its beginnings in the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.⁴¹

Theoretical development

In the mid-1970s, the American sociologist Daniel Bell provided a general account of the postmodern as an effectively nihilistic response to modernism's alleged assault on the Protestant work ethic and its rejection of what he upheld as traditional values.⁴² The ideals of modernity, per his diagnosis, were degraded to the level of consumer choice.⁴³ This research project, however, was not taken up in a significant way by others until the mid-1980s when the work of Jean Baudrillard and Fredric Jameson, building upon art and literary criticism, reintroduced the term to sociology.⁴⁴

Discussion about the postmodern in the second part of the 20th century was most articulate in areas with a large body of critical discourse around the modernist movement. Even here, however, there continued to be disagreement about such basic issues as whether postmodernism is a break with modernism, a renewal and intensification of modernism,⁴⁵ or even, both at once, a rejection and a radicalization of its historical predecessor.⁴⁶

While discussions in the 1970s were dominated by literary criticism, these were supplanted by architectural theory in the 1980s.⁴⁷ Some of these conversations made use of French poststructuralist thought, but only after these innovations and critical discourse in the arts did postmodernism emerge as a philosophical term in its own right.⁴⁸⁴⁹

In literary and architectural theory

According to Hans Bertens and Perry Anderson, the Black Mountain poets Charles Olson and Robert Creeley first introduced the term "postmodern" in its current sense during the 1950s.⁵⁰⁵¹ Their stance against modernist poetry – and Olson's Heideggerian orientation – were influential in the identification of postmodernism as a polemical position opposed to the rationalist values championed by the Enlightenment project.⁵²

During the 1960s, this affirmative use gave way to a pejorative use by the New Left, who used it to describe a waning commitment among youth to the political ideals socialism and communism.⁵³ The literary critic Irving Howe, for instance, denounced postmodern literature for being content to merely reflect, rather than actively attempt to refashion, what he saw as the "increasingly shapeless" character of contemporary society.⁵⁴⁵⁵

In the 1970s, this changed again, largely under the influence of the literary critic Ihab Hassan's large-scale survey of works that he said could no longer be called modern. Taking the Black Mountain poets an exemplary instance of the new postmodern type, Hassan celebrates its Nietzschean playfulness and cheerfully anarchic spirit, which he sets off against the high seriousness of modernism.⁵⁶⁵⁷

(Yet, from another perspective, Friedrich Nietzsche's attack on Western philosophy and Martin Heidegger's critique of metaphysics posed deep theoretical problems not necessarily a cause for aesthetic celebration. Their further influence on the conversation about postmodernism, however, would be largely mediated by French poststructuralism.⁵⁸)

If literature were at the center of the discussion in the 1970s, architecture was at the center in the 1980s.⁵⁹ The architectural theorist Charles Jencks, in particular, connected the artistic avant-garde to social change in a way that captured attention outside of academia.⁶⁰ Jenckes, much influenced by the American architect Robert Venturi,⁶¹ celebrated a plurality of forms and encourages participation and active engagement with the local context of the built environment.⁶² He presented this as in opposition to the "authoritarian style" of International Modernism.⁶³

The influence of poststructuralism

In the 1970s, postmodern criticism increasingly came to incorporate poststructuralist theory, particularly the deconstructive approach to texts most strongly associated with Jacques Derrida, who attempted to demonstrate that the whole foundationalist approach to language and knowledge was untenable and misguided.⁶⁴ It is during this period that postmodernism came to be particularly equated with a kind of anti-representational self-reflexivity.⁶⁵⁶⁶

In the 1980s, some critics began to take an interest in the work of Michel Foucault. This introduced a political concern about social power-relations into discussions about postmodernism.⁶⁷ This was also the beginning of the affiliation of postmodernism with feminism and multiculturalism.⁶⁸ The art critic Craig Owens, in particular, not only made the connection to feminism explicit, but went so far as to claim feminism for postmodernism wholesale,⁶⁹ a broad claim resisted by even many sympathetic feminists such as Nancy Fraser and Linda Nicholson.⁷⁰

Generalization

Although postmodern criticism and thought drew on philosophical ideas from early on, "postmodernism" was only introduced to the expressly philosophical lexicon by Jean-François Lyotard in his 1979⁷¹ The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. This work served as a catalyst for many of the subsequent intellectual debates around the term.⁷²⁷³

By the 1990s, postmodernism had become increasingly identified with critical and philosophical discourse directly about postmodernity or the postmodern idiom itself.⁷⁴ No longer centered on any particular art or even the arts in general, it instead turned to address the more general problems posed to society in general by a new proliferation of cultures and forms.⁷⁵ It is during this period that it also came to be associated with postcolonialism and identity politics.⁷⁶

Around this time, postmodernism also began to be conceived in popular culture as a general "philosophical disposition" associated with a loose sort of relativism. In this sense, the term also started to appear as a "casual term of abuse" in non-academic contexts.⁷⁷ Others identified it as an aesthetic "lifestyle" of eclecticism and playful self-irony.⁷⁸

The "Science Wars"

The basis for what became known later as the Science Wars was the 1962 publication of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions by the physicist and historian of science Thomas Kuhn.⁷⁹ Kuhn presented the direction of scientific inquiry — the kind of questions that can be asked, and what counts as a correct answer — as governed by a "paradigm" defining what counts as "normal science" during any given period.⁸⁰ While not based on postmodern ideas or Continental philosophy, Kuhn's intervention set the agenda for much of The Postmodern Condition and has subsequently been presented as the beginning of "postmodern epistemology" in the philosophy of science.⁸¹⁸²

In Kuhn's 1962 framework, the assumptions introduced by new paradigms make them "mutually incommensurable" with previous ones, although they may provide improved explanations of the material world.⁸³⁸⁴ A more radical version of incommensurablity, introduced by the philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend, made stronger claims that connected the largely Anglo-American debate about science to the development of poststructuralism in France.⁸⁵

To some, the stakes were more than epistemological.⁸⁶ The philosopher Israel Scheffler, for instance, argued that the ever-expanding body of scientific knowledge embodies a sort of "moral principle" protecting society from its authoritarian and tribal tendencies.⁸⁷ In this way, with the addition of the poststructuralist influence, the debate about science expanded into a debate about Western culture in general.⁸⁸

The French political philosophers Alain Renaut [fr] and Luc Ferry began a series of responses to this interpretation of postmodernism, and these inspired the physicist Alan Sokal to submit a deliberately nonsensical paper to a postmodernist journal, where it was accepted and published in 1996.⁸⁹ Although the so-called Sokal hoax proved nothing about postmodernism or science, it added to the public perception of a high-stakes intellectual "war" that had already been introduced to the general public by popular books published in the late '80s and '90s.⁹⁰⁹¹ By the late '90s, however, the debate had largely subsided, in part due to the recognition that it had been staged between strawman versions of postmodernism and science alike.⁹²

In the arts

See also: Postmodern art

Postmodernism encompasses a wide range of artistic movements and styles. In visual arts, pop art, conceptual art, feminist art, video art, minimalism, and neo-expressionism are among the approaches recognized as postmodern.⁹³ The label extends to diverse musical genres and artists: John Cage, Madonna, and punk rock all meet postmodern definitions. Literature, film, architecture, theater, fashion, dance, and many other creative disciplines saw postmodern expression. As an example, Andy Warhol's pop art across multiple mediums challenged traditional distinctions between high and low culture, and blurred the lines between fine art and commercial design. His work, exemplified by the iconic Campbell's Soup Cans series during the 1960s, brought the postmodernist sensibility to mainstream attention.⁹⁴⁹⁵

Criticism of postmodernist movements in the arts include objections to departure from beauty, the reliance on language for the art to have meaning, a lack of coherence or comprehensibility, deviation from clear structure, and consistent use of dark and negative themes.⁹⁶⁹⁷

Architecture

Main article: Postmodern architecture

Scholarship regarding postmodernism and architecture is closely linked with the writings of critic-turned-architect Charles Jencks, beginning with lectures in the early 1970s and his essay "The Rise of Post-Modern Architecture" from 1975.⁹⁸ His magnum opus, however, is the book The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, first published in 1977, and since running to seven editions⁹⁹ (in which he famously wrote: "Modern architecture died in St. Louis, Missouri, on 15 July 1972 at 3:32 p.m. (or thereabouts) when the infamous Pruitt–Igoe scheme, or rather several of its slab blocks, were given the final coup de grâce by dynamite."¹⁰⁰).

Jencks makes the point that postmodernism (like modernism) varies for each field of art, and that for architecture it is not just a reaction to modernism but what he terms double coding: "Double Coding: the combination of Modern techniques with something else (usually traditional building) in order for architecture to communicate with the public and a concerned minority, usually other architects."¹⁰¹

In their book, "Revisiting Postmodernism", Terry Farrell and Adam Furman argue that postmodernism brought a more joyous and sensual experience to the culture, particularly in architecture.¹⁰² For instance, in response to the modernist slogan of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe that "less is more", the postmodernist Robert Venturi rejoined that "less is a bore".¹⁰³

Dance

Main article: Postmodern dance

The term "postmodern dance" is most strongly associated with the Judson Dance Theater, located in New York's Greenwich Village during the 1960s and 1970s. Perhaps its most important principle is taken from the composer John Cage's efforts to break down the distinction between art and life,¹⁰⁴¹⁰⁵ developed in particular by the American dancer and choreographer Merce Cunningham, Cage's partner.¹⁰⁶ The Judson dancers "[stripped] dance of its theatrical conventions such as virtuoso technique, fanciful costumes, complex storylines, and the traditional stage [and] drew on everyday movements (sitting, walking, kneeling, and other gestures) to create their pieces, often performing them in ordinary spaces."¹⁰⁷ Anna Halprin's San Francisco Dancers' Workshop, established in the 1950s to explore beyond the technical constraints of modern dance, pioneered ideas later developed at Judson;¹⁰⁸ Halprin, Simone Forti, and Yvonne Rainer are considered "giants of the field".¹⁰⁹

The Judson collective included trained dancers, visual artists, filmmakers, writers, and composers, exchanging approaches, and critiquing traditional dance,¹¹⁰ with a focus "more on the intellectual process of creating dance than the end result".¹¹¹ The end of the 1970s saw a distancing from this analytical postmodern dance, and a return to the expression of meaning.¹¹² In the 1980s and 1990s, dance began to incorporate other typically postmodern features such as the mixing of genres, challenging high–low cultural distinctions, and incorporating a political dimension.¹¹³

Film

Main article: Postmodern film

Postmodern film aims to subvert the mainstream conventions of narrative structure and characterization, and to test the audience's suspension of disbelief.^114115116 Typically, such films also break down the cultural divide between high and low art and often upend typical portrayals of gender, race, class, genre, and time with the goal of creating something that does not abide by traditional narrative expression.¹¹⁷

Certain key characteristics are used to separate the postmodern from modernist cinema and traditional narrative film.¹¹⁸¹¹⁹ One is an extensive use of homage or pastiche, imitating the style or character of other artistic works. A second is meta-reference or self-reference, highlighting the relation of the image to other images in media and not to any kind of external reality.¹²⁰ Viewers are reminded that the film itself is only a film, perhaps through the use of intertextuality, in which the film's characters reference other works of fiction. A third characteristic is stories that unfold out of chronological order, deconstructing or fragmenting time to emphasize the constructed nature of film. Another common element is a bridging of the gap between highbrow and lowbrow,.^121122123 Contradictions of all sorts are crucial to postmodernism.¹²⁴¹²⁵

Ridley Scott's Blade Runner (1982) has been widely studied as a prime example of postmodernism. The setting is a future dystopia where "replicants", enhanced android workers nearly indistinguishable from humans, are hunted down when they escape from their jobs. The film blurs boundaries between genres and cultures, and fuses disparate styles and periods: futuristic visuals "mingle with drab 1940s clothes and offices, punk rock hairstyles, pop Egyptian styles and oriental culture."¹²⁶¹²⁷ The blending of film noir and science-fiction into tech noir illustrates the deconstruction of both cinema and genre.¹²⁸ The film can also be seen as an example of major studios using the "mystique and cachet of the term 'postmodern' as a sales pitch", resulting in Hollywood movies that "demonstrate all the postmodern characteristics".¹²⁹ From another perspective, "critical responses to Blade Runner fall on either side of a modern/postmodern line" – critical analysis from "modernist" and "postmodernist" approaches produce entirely different interpretations.¹³⁰

Literature

Main article: Postmodern literature

In 1971, the American literary theorist Ihab Hassan made "postmodernism" popular in literary studies with his influential book, The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature. According to scholar David Herwitz, American writers such as John Barth (who had controversially declared that the novel was "exhausted" as a genre), Donald Barthelme, and Thomas Pynchon responded in various ways to the stylistic innovations of Finnegans Wake and the late work of Samuel Beckett. Postmodern literature often calls attention to issues regarding its own complicated connection to reality. The postmodern novel plays with language, twisted plots, multiple narrators, and unresolved endings, unsettling the conventional idea of the novel as faithfully reflecting the world.¹³¹

In Postmodernist Fiction (1987), Brian McHale details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that postmodern works developed out of modernism, moving from concern with what is there ("ontological dominant") to concern with how we can know it's there ("epistemological dominant").¹³² McHale's "What Was Postmodernism?" (2007)¹³³ follows Raymond Federman's lead in now using the past tense when discussing postmodernism. Others argue that postmodernism in literature utilizes compositional and semantic practices such as inclusivity, intentional indiscrimination, nonselection, and "logical impossibility."¹³⁴

Music

Main articles: Postmodern music, Postmodern classical music, and Art pop

Postmodern influence extends across all areas of music; its accessibility to a general audience requires an understanding of references, irony, and pastiche that varies widely between artists and their works.¹³⁵ In popular music, Madonna, David Bowie, and Talking Heads have been singled out by critics and scholars as postmodern icons. The belief that art music – serious, classical music – holds higher cultural and technical value than folk and popular traditions, lost influence under postmodern analysis, as musical hybrids and crossovers attracted scholarly attention.¹³⁶¹³⁷

Across musical traditions, postmodernism can be identified through several core characteristics: genre mixing; irony, humor, and self-parody; "surface" exploration with less concern for formal structure than in modernist approaches; and a return to tonality.¹³⁸ This represents a loss of authority of the Eurocentric perspective on music and the rise of world music as influenced by postmodern values. Composers took different routes: some returned to traditional modes over experimentation, others challenged the authority of dominant musical structures, others intermingled disparate sources.¹³⁹

The composer Jonathan Kramer has written that avant-garde musical compositions (which some would consider modernist rather than postmodernist) "defy more than seduce the listener, and they extend by potentially unsettling means the very idea of what music is."¹⁴⁰ In the 1960s, composers such as Henryk Górecki and Philip Glass reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies, whilst others, most notably John Cage challenged the modernist account of structure by including the contingent in the structure of his compositions themselves.¹⁴¹

In 2023, music critic Andy Cush described Talking Heads as "New York art-punks" whose "blend of nervy postmodernism and undeniable groove made them one of the defining rock bands of the late 1970s and '80s."¹⁴² Media theorist Dick Hebdige, examining the "Road to Nowhere" music video in 1989, said the group "draw eclectically on a wide range of visual and aural sources to create a distinctive pastiche or hybrid 'house style' which they have used since their formation in the mid-1970s deliberately to stretch received (industrial) definitions of what rock/pop/video/Art/ performance/audience are", calling them "a properly postmodernist band."¹⁴³ According to lead vocalist/guitarist/songwriter David Byrne, commenting in 2011, "Anything could be mixed and matched – or mashed up, as is said today – and anything was fair game for inspiration.”¹⁴⁴

Avant-garde academics labelled American singer Madonna a "personification of the postmodern" and created a sub-discipline of cultural studies known as Madonna studies.¹⁴⁵ Her self-aware constructs of gender and identity, and classic film references in music videos for "Material Girl" (1984) and "Express Yourself" (1989), made her a favorite of cultural theorists, who saw her as "enacting postmodernist models of subjectivity."¹⁴⁶ Madonna was seen to embody fragmentation, pastiche, retrospection, anti-foundationalism, and de-differentiation; her "subversion of the subversion of the subversion of the male gaze" in the "Material Girl" video was analyzed.¹⁴⁷

Performance and theater

Main article: Postmodern theatre

Postmodern theater emerged as a reaction against modernist theater. Most postmodern productions are centered on highlighting the fallibility of definite truth, instead encouraging the audience to reach their own individual understanding. Essentially, thus, postmodern theater raises questions rather than attempting to supply answers.

Sculpture

Sculptor Claes Oldenberg, at the forefront of the pop art movement, declared in 1961: "I am for an art that is political-erotical-mystical … I am for an art that embroils itself with everyday crap and still comes out on top."¹⁴⁸ That year, he opened The Store in a dime store area of New York's Lower East Side, where he blurred the line between art and commerce by producing and selling brightly painted plaster replicas of hamburgers and cans of soda, dresses, underwear, and other everyday objects: "Museum in b[ourgeois] concept equals store in mine".¹⁴⁹¹⁵⁰

In philosophy

Main article: Postmodern philosophy

See also: Criticism of postmodernism

Poststructuralist precursors

Main article: Poststructuralism

In the 1970s, a disparate group of French theorists – often grouped together as "poststructuralists" – developed a critique of modern philosophy with roots discernible in Friedrich Nietzsche and Martin Heidegger's critique of metaphysics.¹⁵¹ Although few themselves relied upon the term, they became known to many as postmodern theorists.¹⁵² Poststructuralism is sometimes treated as distinct from or a subcategory of postmodernism and sometimes is treated as having been subsumed by postmodernism.¹⁵³ While their ideas exerted a great influence on debates about the postmodern, the French poststucturalists themselves did not intervene or attempt to provide their own definitions of the postmodern.¹⁵⁴

Poststructuralists, like structuralists, start from the assumption that people's identities, values, and economic conditions determine each other as parts of a common whole, rather than having intrinsic properties that can be understood in isolation.¹⁵⁵ While structuralism explores how meaning is produced by a set of essential relationships in an overarching quasi-linguistic system, poststructuralism accepts this premise, but rejects the assumption that such systems can ever be fixed or centered.¹⁵⁶ Instead, poststructuralists stress the various ways that cultural structures are produced in history.¹⁵⁷ They also emphasize how meaning is generated, rather than discovered, and they replace the traditional concept of "representation" (according to which meaning is determined by the objected signified) to focus instead upon the elastic potentialities of language to generate new meanings.¹⁵⁸¹⁵⁹

Politically, all of them began with Marxist sympathies, became disillusioned, and eventually opposed the French Communist Party and its application of theory.¹⁶⁰ The chaos following the briefly successful communist revolution of May '68 in France was a particular point of rupture.¹⁶¹

Jacques Derrida and deconstruction

Deconstruction is a practice in philosophy, literary criticism, and close reading developed by Jacques Derrida. It is based on the assumption, which it seeks to validate by textual analysis, that any text harbors inherent points of "undecidability" that undermine any stable meaning intended by the author. The process of writing inevitably, he aims to show, reveals suppressed elements, challenging the oppositions that are thought to sustain the text.¹⁶² Nevertheless, Derrida does not wish to do away with such concepts as "origin" or "truth". What he challenges is any claim to finality. Such metaphysical concepts are, as he puts it, "under erasure", and this, he says, makes deconstructive reading a kind of "double play".¹⁶³

From this perspective, Derrida argues that the practice of metaphysics in the Western tradition depends upon hierarchies and orders of subordination within various dualisms that it does not acknowledge. It prioritizes presence and purity over the contingent and complicated, dismissing them as aberrations irrelevant to philosophical analysis. In essence, according to Derrida, metaphysical thought prioritizes one side of an opposition while ignoring or marginalizing the alternative.¹⁶⁴ He uses the term metaphysics of presence to describe the foundationalist approach to knowledge, taking himself to have demonstrated that we do not have unmediated access to reality. This project of deconstructing and challenging the assumptions of modern philosophy was influential for many postmodern thinkers.¹⁶⁵

Michel Foucault on power relations

French philosopher and social theorist Michel Foucault argued that power operates according to the logics of social institutions that have become unmoored from the intentions of any actual individuals. Individuals, according to Foucault, are both products and participants in these dynamics. Among other strategies, he employed a Nietzsche-inspired "genealogical method" to analyze power-relations across their historical permutations.¹⁶⁶

Both Foucault's political orientation and the consistency of his positions continue to be debated among critics and defenders alike. Nevertheless, Foucault's political works share two common elements: a historical perspective and a discursive methodology. He analyzed social phenomena in historical contexts and focused on how they have evolved over time. Additionally, he employed the study of written texts, usually academic texts, as the material for his inquiries. In this way, Foucault sought to understand how the historical formation of discourses has shaped contemporary political thinking and institutions.¹⁶⁷

Jean Baudrillard on hyperreality

Although trained in sociology, Jean Baudrillard worked across many disciplines. Drawing upon some of the technical vocabulary of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, Baudrillard argued that social production had shifted from creating real objects to instead producing signs and symbols. This system of symbolic exchange, detached from the real, constitutes hyperreality. In the words of one commentator, "the hyperreal is a system of simulation that simulates itself."¹⁶⁸

Postmodernity, Baudrillard said, is the condition in which the domain of reality has become so heavily mediated by signs as to become inaccessible in itself, leaving us entirely in the domain of the simulacra, images that bear no relation to anything outside of themselves.¹⁶⁹ This hyperreality is presented as the terminal stage of simulation, where signs and images become entirely self-referential.¹⁷⁰

Baudrillard's vision of postmodernity has been described as "apocalyptic",¹⁷¹¹⁷² and scholars disagree about whether his later works are intended as science fiction or truthful theoretical claims.¹⁷³ Another interpretation is that Baudrillard deliberately adopts the role of agent provocateur.¹⁷⁴

A crisis of legitimacy

At the center of the intellectual debate about postmodernism is the question of what, if anything, grounds theory. What establishes that a statement is true or that an action is right? This foundational debate is most prominently on display in Habermas's rejoinder to Lyotard's anti-foundational, postmodern challenge to Habermas's own foundational version of modernism.¹⁷⁵

The Postmodern Condition

Jean-François Lyotard is credited with being the first to use the term "postmodern" in a philosophical context. This appeared in his 1979 The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. In this influential work, Lyotard provided the following definition: "Simplifying to the extreme, I define postmodern as incredulity towards metanarratives".¹⁷⁶¹⁷⁷

By "metanarratives", Lyotard meant such overarching narrative frameworks as those provided by Christianity, G. W. F. Hegel, and Karl Marx that unite and determine our basic sense of our place and significance in the world.¹⁷⁸ It was his early disillusionment with his early Marxism that would later be generalized into the universal claim about metanarratives.¹⁷⁹ In a society with no unifying narrative, he argued, we are left with heterogeneous, group-specific narratives (or "language games", as adopted from Ludwig Wittgenstein¹⁸⁰) with no universal perspective from which to adjudicate among them.¹⁸¹

According to Lyotard, this introduced a general crisis of legitimacy, a theme he adopts from the philosopher Jürgen Habermas, whose theory of communicative rationality Lyotard rejected.¹⁸²¹⁸³ While he was particularly concerned in that report with the way that this insight undermined claims of scientific objectivity, Lyotard's argument undermines the entire principle of transcendent legitimization.¹⁸⁴¹⁸⁵ Instead, proponents of a language game must make the case for their legitimacy with reference to such considerations as efficiency or practicality.¹⁸⁶ Far from celebrating the apparently relativistic consequences of this argument, however, Lyotard focused much of his subsequent work on how links among games could be established, particularly with respect to ethics and politics.¹⁸⁷

The philosophical criticism of Jürgen Habermas

The philosopher Jürgen Habermas, a prominent critic of philosophical postmodernism, argued in his 1985 work The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity¹⁸⁸ that postmodern thinkers were caught in a performative contradiction, more specifically, that their critiques of modernity rely on concepts and methods that are themselves products of modern reason.¹⁸⁹

Habermas criticized these thinkers for their rejection of the subject and their embrace of experimental, avant-garde strategies. He asserted that their critiques of modernism ultimately lead to a longing for the very subject they seek to dismantle. Habermas also took issue with postmodernists' leveling of the distinction between philosophy and literature. He argued that such rhetorical strategies undermine the importance of argument and communicative reason.¹⁹⁰

Habermas's critique of postmodernism set the stage for much of the subsequent debate by clarifying some of its key underlying issues. According to scholar Gary Aylesworth – against those who would dismiss postmodernist discourse as simple nonsense – the fact that Habermas was "able to read postmodernist texts closely and discursively testifies to their intelligibility". His engagement with their ideas has led some postmodern philosophers, following Lyotard, to similarly engage with Habermas's criticisms.¹⁹¹

Frederic Jameson's Marxist rejoinder

The appearance of linguistic relativism also inspired an extensive rebuttal by the Marxist critic Fredric Jameson.¹⁹² Building upon the theoretical foundations laid out by the Marxist economist Ernst Mandel¹⁹³ and observations in the early work of the sociologist Jean Baudrillard,¹⁹⁴ Jameson developed his own conception of the postmodern as "the cultural logic of late capitalism" in the form of an enormous cultural expansion into an economy of spectacle and style, rather than the production of goods.¹⁹⁵¹⁹⁶ According to Jameson, because the postmodernism is result of political and historical circumstances that make up the social world, it is not something that can be simply embraced or condemned. Instead, it must be analyzed and understood so that we may confront the world as it is.¹⁹⁷

Jameson categorizes a variety of features of the postmodern. One is the elision of the distinction between high culture and mass culture.¹⁹⁸ Also, because of our loss of a unified "bourgeois ego", subjectivity is less focused, and we experience what he terms a "waning of the affect", an emotional disengagement from the social world.¹⁹⁹ This loss of significance leads to what he calls "depthlessness", a difficulty in getting beneath the surfaces of cultural objects to find any deeper significance than is offered directly to the subject.²⁰⁰ Reduced to a set of styles, history looses its political force.²⁰¹ This phenomenon finds expression, for instance, in the shift from "parody", in which styles are mixed in the interest of making a point, to "pastiche", in which styles are mixed together without attention to their original contexts.²⁰²

Richard Rorty's neopragmatism

Richard Rorty was an American philosopher known for his linguistic form of neopragmatism. Initially attracted to analytic philosophy, Rorty later rejected its representationalism. His major influences, rather than the poststructuralists, include Charles Darwin, Hans Georg Gadamer, G. W. F. Hegel, and Martin Heidegger.²⁰³

Rorty challenged the notion of a mind-independent, language-independent reality. He argued that language is a tool used to adapt to the environment and achieve desired ends. This naturalistic approach led him to abandon the traditional quest for a privileged mental power that allows direct access to things-in-themselves.²⁰⁴

Instead, Rorty advocated for a focus on imaginative alternatives to present beliefs rather than the pursuit of independently grounded truths. He believed that creative, secular humanism, free from authoritarian assertions about truth and goodness, is the key to a better future. Rorty saw his neopragmatism as a continuation of the Enlightenment project, aiming to demystify human life and replace traditional power relations with those based on tolerance and freedom.²⁰⁵

In other fields

Postmodernism is more fully understood by observing its effects in such diverse fields as law, education, urban planning, religious studies, politics and many others.²⁰⁶ Its influence varies widely across disciplines, reflecting the extent to which postmodern theories and ideas have been integrated into actual practices.

Anthropology

Main article: Postmodernist anthropology

Postmodern theory in anthropology originated in the 1960s, alongside the literary postmodern movement. Reflexivity is central to postmodern anthropology, a continuous practice of critical self-awareness that attempts to address the subjectivity inherent in interpretation.²⁰⁷ Other key practices are an emphasis on including the perspectives of the people being studied;²⁰⁸ cultural relativism, which considers values and beliefs within their cultural context;²⁰⁹ skepticism towards the notion that science can produce objective and universally valid knowledge;²¹⁰ and rejection of grand narratives or theories that attempt to explain other cultures.²¹¹

Anthropologists working in a postmodern vein seek to dissect, interpret, and write cultural critiques, analyzing of cultural texts and practices, rather than relying on empirical observation. The issue of subjectivity is a concern: as ethnographies are influenced by the perspective of the author, the question arises in the study of individual cultures as to whether the author's opinions should be considered scientific.²¹² Clifford Geertz, considered a founding member of postmodernist anthropology,²¹³ holds that, "anthropological writings are themselves interpretations, and second and third order ones to boot. (By definition, only a 'native' makes first order ones: it's his culture.)"²¹⁴ In the 21st century, some anthropologists use a form of standpoint theory, which prioritizes the perspectives of the subject over the perspective of the observer in cultural interpretation.

Feminism

Main article: Postmodern feminism

Postmodern feminism mixes postmodern theory and French feminism²¹⁵ that rejects a universal female subject.²¹⁶²¹⁷ The goal is to destabilize the patriarchal norms entrenched in society that have led to gender inequality.²¹⁸ Essentialism, philosophy, and universal truths are opposed, in favor of embracing the differences that exist amongst women to demonstrate that not all women are the same.²¹⁹ Applying universal truths to all women in a society minimizes individual experience; ideas displayed as the norm in society stem from masculine notions of how women should be portrayed.²²⁰

Postmodern feminism seeks to analyze notions that have led to gender inequality, and attempts to promote equality through critiquing logocentrism, supporting multiple discourses, deconstructing texts, and seeking to promote subjectivity.²²¹²²² This approach is not readily accepted by all feminists—some believe postmodern thought undermines the attacks that feminist theory attempts to create, while other feminists are in favor of the union.²²³

Law

Main article: Postmodern law

In response to the perceived shortcomings of legal formalism and positivism, postmodern legal scholars developed several new approaches to address both formal and ethical issues in jurisprudence. In particular, they emphasize the inequalities introduced to the legal system by such matters as race, gender, and economic status.²²⁴

Psychology

Main article: Postmodern psychology

In 1992, the Los Angeles Times reported on "a group of increasingly influential psychologists – postmodern psychologists seems to be the name that is sticking", who had come to the conclusion that "the American conception of an isolated, unified self" does not exist. People are composed of many different selves, constructed for different situations.²²⁵ In this way, postmodernism challenges the modernist view of psychology as the science of the individual,²²⁶ in favor of seeing humans as a cultural/communal product, dominated by language rather than by an inner self.²²⁷

In 2001, Kenneth Gergen, a pioneer in postmodern psychological theory, identified "emphasis on the individual mind, an objectively knowable world, and language as carrier of truth" as the cornerstones of traditional modernist psychology. He noted criticism of these assumptions coming from "every quarter of the humanities and the sciences", and the emergence of a psychology in which "colonialist universalism is replaced by a global conversation among equals". He also considered the "strong critical reservation", including the realist argument that a socially constructed world cannot negate a clearly observable objective reality; the claim of incoherence, wherein postmodernism denies truth and objectivity while simultaneously making truth claims; and its moral relativism, which fails to take a principled ethical stand. Ultimately, he concluded that psychology's future is "hanging in the balance".²²⁸

In 2021, psychologist Jan Smedslund discussed how psychology tried for decades to emulate the natural sciences and address unpredictable individual behavior. He described how the dominant methodology came to rely exclusively on statistical analysis of group-level data and average findings, whereby it "lost contact with the psychological processes going on in individual persons." He advocated for abandoning the natural science approach that had "led into a clearly discernible blind alley."²²⁹

In 2024, American psychology professor Edwin Gantt wrote that psychology remains in a state of continual struggle "to decide whether its true intellectual home is to be found among the humanities, especially philosophy and literature, or among the STEM disciplines." He finds psychology "a key site where the intellectual tug-of-war between modernism and postmodernism plays itself out in academia."²³⁰

Urban planning

Modernism sought to design and plan cities that followed the logic of the new model of industrial mass production; reverting to large-scale solutions, aesthetic standardization, and prefabricated design solutions.²³¹ This approach was found to have eroded urban living by its failure to recognize differences and aim towards homogeneous landscapes.²³² Jane Jacobs's 1961 book The Death and Life of Great American Cities,²³³ was a sustained critique of urban planning as it had developed within modernism,²³⁴ and played a major role in turning public opinion against modernist planners, notably Robert Moses.²³⁵

Postmodern urban planning involves theories that embrace and aim to create diversity, elevating uncertainty, flexibility, and change, and rejecting utopianism while embracing a utopian way of thinking and acting.²³⁶ The postmodernity of "resistance" seeks to deconstruct modernism, a critique of the origins without necessarily returning to them.^{237 238}

Theology

Main article: Postmodern theology

The postmodern theological movement interprets Christian theology in light of postmodern theory and various forms of post-Heideggerian thought, using approaches such as poststructuralism, phenomenology, and deconstruction to question fixed interpretations, explore the role of lived experience, and uncover hidden textual assumptions and contradictions.²³⁹ The movement emerged in the 1980s and 1990s when a handful of philosophers who took philosopher Martin Heidegger as a common point of departure began publishing books engaging with Christian theology.²⁴⁰²⁴¹

Theologian Kevin J. Vanhoozer combines and expands on other scholarly classifications to present seven types of postmodern theology: postliberal, postmetaphysical, deconstructive, reconstructive, feminist, Anglo-American postmodernity, and radical orthodoxy. He notes that the typology should be considered "provisional and fallible [yet] not entirely arbitrary", having met two main criteria: each is an approach taken by more than one theologian, and each "believes itself to be responding to, rejecting, or passing through modernity, not inhabiting it."²⁴²

In popular culture

Fashion

One manifestation of postmodernism in fashion explored alternatives to conventional concepts of elegance: Rei Kawakubo’s Spring/Summer 1997 collection featured "dresses asymmetrically padded with goose down, creating bumps in unexpected areas of the body". Issey Miyake's 1985 dreadlocks hat "offered an immediate, yet impermanent, 'multi-culti' fashion experience". Vivienne Westwood took "an extremely polyglot approach", from early work with copies of 1950s clothes, to exploration of historic modes and cultural influences. In 1981, her first runway show, "Pirate", merged British history, 18th- and 19th-century dress, and African textile design, with a rap and ethnic music soundtrack.²⁴³²⁴⁴

The postmodern fashion sensibility appeared also through the subcultures of the 1960s and 1970s. Hippies, punks and other countercultural groups constructed their own nonconformist identities through choices in music, drugs, slang, and appearance. As these styles gained mainstream popularity, critics claim they lost their deeper meaning: "the adoption of surface attributes offers the frisson of rebellion without a commitment to a subcultural lifestyle."²⁴⁵

Graphic design

Early mention of postmodernism in graphic design appeared in the British magazine, Design, during the late 1960s.²⁴⁶ The discussion took a pragmatic if not entirely comfortable view of graphic design as engaging with the economic necessities of a changing world. Graphic design had the role of "active stylization of product surfaces (such as those of packaging and promotion)", engaging without moralizing with consumer desires. Editor Corin Hughes-Stanton concluded, "Post-Modernism' is an attitude that takes the form of a creative response to unfolding developments in the socio-economic sphere; it is a sign of active engagement rather than an academic retreat from its commercial and professional concerns."²⁴⁷

Marketing

Main article: Postmodern marketing

Postmodernism in marketing focuses on customized experiences where broad market generalizations are no longer applied.²⁴⁸ According to academic Stephen Brown, "Marketers know about consumers, consumers know about marketers, marketers know consumers know about marketers, and consumers know marketers know consumers know about marketers." Brown, writing in 1993, stated that the postmodern approach in many ways rejects attempts to impose order and work in silos. Instead marketers should work collectively with "artistic" attributes of intuition, creativity, spontaneity, speculation, emotion, and involvement.²⁴⁹

Ongoing influence

See also: Modernism and Metamodernism

Since the late 1990s, there has been a growing sentiment in popular culture and in academia that postmodernism "has gone out of fashion".²⁵⁰ Others argue that postmodernism is dead in the context of current cultural production.^251252253

A 2020 study investigated the reported transition from postmodernism to post-postmodernism, those "changing social conditions that lead the consumer to consume in a particular manner". Song lyrics were selected from Madonna (postmodern), Taylor Swift (post-postmodern), and Lady Gaga as a transitional example. Five postmodern characteristics consistently found in marketing literature were compared to their post-postmodern counterparts: anti-foundationalism to rewriting; dedifferentiation to redifferentiation; fragmentation to reengagement; reversal of production and consumption to rebalancing of production and consumption; and hyperreality to alternative reality. Postmodernism, it finds, "remains vibrant, re-inventive, and calls for its demise may be somewhat overblown." Swift's success "suggests a significant shift from deconstructive to reconstructive positions regarding the self and its surroundings", noting that her "post-postmodern engagement, enthusiasm and sincerity" appeared to be "somewhat superficial, sociopathic, and couched in fabulation."²⁵⁴

The connection between postmodernism, posthumanism, and cyborgism has led to a challenge to postmodernism, for which the terms Post-postmodernism and postpoststructuralism were first coined in 2003.^255256257 A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), Gilles Lipovetsky (hypermodernity), Nicolas Bourriaud (altermodern), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly called pseudo-modernism). None of these new theories or labels have so far gained very widespread acceptance.

Writing in 2022, Steven Connor argues that, despite continuing reports of its death or imminent demise, postmodernism has instead undergone a kind of disappearance into our culture by way of assimilation. He notes there is little that can now be called postmodern style because "the clashing or commingling of styles has become entirely routine at all levels of culture." The energizing antagonism between high and low culture has been "pestled into a tepid porridge." And the general postmodern condition is now "universal, irreversible and metastable, embodied above all in the massive increase in digitally mediated information technologies." According to Connor, postmodernism in the 2020s is a sensibility that has been integrated into everyday life, having been subject to a considerable degree of shifting, perhaps temporarily, from irony, pluralism and ambivalence to urgency, indignation, and reductive absolutism.²⁵⁸

See also

Theory

• Anti-foundationalism – Epistemology without sure premises
• Transmodernism – Philosophical and cultural movement

Culture and politics

• Defamiliarization – Artistic technique of presenting common things in an unfamiliar or strange way

Religion

• Postmodern religion – Religion influenced by postmodernism

History

• Second modernity – Industrial society transformed into a more reflexive network society or information society

Opposed by

• Altermodern – term for art that reacts against standardisation and commercialismPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• Metamodernism – Movement that emerged from and reacts to postmodernism
• Remodernism – Present-day modernist philosophical movement

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

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• Best, Steven; Kellner, Douglas (1991). Postmodern Theory: Critical Interrogations. Macmillan.
• Bertens, Johannes Willem (1995). The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0415060110.
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• Buchanan, Ian (2018). "postmodernism". A Dictionary of Critical Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198794790.
• Connor, Steven (2004). "Introduction". In Connor, Steven (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Postmodernism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–19. ISBN 978-0521648400.
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• Thompson, J. M. (1914). "Post-Modernism". The Hibbert Journal. XII (4): 733.
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• Vanhoozer, Kevin J. (2003). "Theology and the Condition of Postmodernity: A Report on Knowledge (of God)". In Vanhoozer, Kevin J. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Postmodern Theology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 22–25.
• Welsch, Wolfgang; Sandbothe, Mike (1997). "Postmodernity as a Philosophical Concept". International Postmodernism. Comparative History of Literatures in European Languages. Vol. XI. p. 76. doi:10.1075/chlel.xi.07wel (inactive 7 December 2024). ISBN 978-90-272-3443-8 – via Google Books.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Postmodernism. Look up postmodernism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Postmodernism.

• Discourses of Postmodernism. Multilingual bibliography by Janusz Przychodzen (PDF file)
• Modernity, postmodernism and the tradition of dissent, by Lloyd Spencer (1998)
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on postmodernism

References

1. Buchanan 2018. - Buchanan, Ian (2018). "postmodernism". A Dictionary of Critical Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198794790. ↩

2. Bertens 1995, p. 11. - Bertens, Johannes Willem (1995). The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0415060110. ↩

3. Connor 2013, p. 567. - Connor, Steven (2013). "postmodernism". In Michael Payne and Jessica Rae Barbera (ed.). A Dictionary of Cultural and Critical Theory. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1118438817. ↩

4. Spencer 2011, p. 217. - Spencer, Lloyd (2011). "Postmodernism, Modernity and the Tradition of Dissent". In Sim, Stuart (ed.). The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism (3 ed.). pp. 215–26. ↩

5. A sampling from other scholars: It is "diffuse, fragmentary, [and] multi-dimensional".[7] Critics have described it as "an exasperating term"[8] and claim that its indefinability is "a truism".[9] Put otherwise, postmodernism is "several things at once".[8] It has no single definition, and the term does not name any single unified phenomenon, but rather many diverse phenomena: "postmodernisms rather than one postmodernism".[10][11][12] ↩

6. Jin, Huimin (September 2023). "Postmodernism in the 21st Century Pros and Cons". Journal of East-West Thought. 13 (3): 19. https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/publications/4m90f310d ↩

7. Bertens 1995, pp. 4–5. - Bertens, Johannes Willem (1995). The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0415060110. ↩

8. Bertens 1995, p. 46. - Bertens, Johannes Willem (1995). The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0415060110. ↩

9. Menand, Louis (15 February 2009). "Saved from Drowning". The New Yorker. Retrieved 5 November 2024. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/02/23/saved-from-drowning ↩

10. Hebdige, Dick (2006). "Postmodernism and "the other side"". In Storey, John (ed.). Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: A reader. London: Pearson Education. /wiki/Pearson_Education ↩

11. Bertens 1995, p. 10. - Bertens, Johannes Willem (1995). The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0415060110. ↩

12. Brown, Stephen (2006). "Recycling Postmodern Marketing". The Marketing Review. 6 (3): 214. doi:10.1362/146934706778605322. SSRN 2016131 – via SSRN. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2016131 ↩

13. Jin, Huimin (September 2023). "Postmodernism in the 21st Century Pros and Cons". Journal of East-West Thought. 13 (3). https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/publications/4m90f310d ↩

14. Hart, James D.; Martin, Wendy; Hinrichs, Danielle, eds. (2020). "postmodernism". The Concise Oxford Companion to American Literature (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780191872112.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-187211-2. 978-0-19-187211-2 ↩

15. Heise, Ursula K. (2004), Connor, Steven (ed.), "Science, technology, and postmodernism", The Cambridge Companion to Postmodernism, Cambridge Companions to Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 136–167, doi:10.1017/ccol0521640520.008, ISBN 978-0-521-64052-7, retrieved 13 November 2024 978-0-521-64052-7 ↩

16. Gantt 2024 - Gantt, Edwin E. (22 March 2024). "The Academy's Creed of Skepticism". Public Square Magazine. Retrieved 15 October 2024. https://publicsquaremag.org/media-education/education/the-academys-creed-of-skepticism/ ↩

17. Ermarth, Elizabeth Deeds (2016), "Postmodernism", Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1 ed.), London: Routledge, doi:10.4324/9780415249126-n044-1, ISBN 978-0-415-25069-6, retrieved 7 October 2024, Although diverse and eclectic, postmodernism can be recognized by two key assumptions: first, the assumption that there is no common denominator – in 'nature' or 'truth' or 'God' or 'time' – that guarantees either the One-ness of the world or the possibility of neutral, objective thought; second, the assumption that all human systems operate like language as self-reflexive rather than referential systems, in other words systems of differential function that are powerful but finite, and that construct and maintain meaning and value. 978-0-415-25069-6 ↩

18. Klages, Mary (6 December 2001). "Postmodernism". University of Idaho. Retrieved 15 October 2024. https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~sflores/KlagesPostmodernism.html ↩

19. McGrath, Alister E. (1996). A passion for truth: the intellectual coherence of evangelicalism (1. publ ed.). Leicester: Apollos. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-85111-447-7. 978-0-85111-447-7 ↩

20. Best & Kellner 1991, p. 2. - Best, Steven; Kellner, Douglas (1991). Postmodern Theory: Critical Interrogations. Macmillan. ↩

21. Scott, John, ed. (2014). A Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford Reference (4. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968358-1. Postmodernity, in whatever guise it appears, thus implies the disintegration of modernist symbolic orders. It denies the existence of all 'universals', including the philosophy of the transcendental self, on the grounds that the discourse and referential categories of modernity (the subject, community, the state, use-value, social class, and so forth) are no longer appropriate to the description of disorganized capitalism. 978-0-19-968358-1 ↩

22. Herman, David J. (1991). "Modernism versus Postmodernism: Towards an Analytic Distinction". Poetics Today. 12 (1): 55–86. doi:10.2307/1772982. ISSN 0333-5372. JSTOR 1772982. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1772982 ↩

23. Welsch & Sandbothe 1997, p. 76. - Welsch, Wolfgang; Sandbothe, Mike (1997). "Postmodernity as a Philosophical Concept". International Postmodernism. Comparative History of Literatures in European Languages. Vol. XI. p. 76. doi:10.1075/chlel.xi.07wel (inactive 7 December 2024). ISBN 978-90-272-3443-8 – via Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=n_Eqx2Gr1vUC&pg=PA76 ↩

24. Hassan 1987, pp. 12ff. - Hassan, Ihab (1987). The Postmodern Turn, Essays in Postmodern Theory and Culture. Ohio University Press. p. 12ff. ↩

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26. Buchanan 2018. - Buchanan, Ian (2018). "postmodernism". A Dictionary of Critical Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198794790. ↩

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58. Best & Kellner 1991, pp. 22–23. - Best, Steven; Kellner, Douglas (1991). Postmodern Theory: Critical Interrogations. Macmillan. ↩

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66. The incorporation of deconstruction into postmodernism, while common in the U.S., was resisted in the U.K.[59] Furthermore, the more general category of poststructuralism itself was a largely American category, foreign to the disparate French thinkers upon whom it was imposed.[60] ↩

67. Bertens 1995, pp. 7, 79. - Bertens, Johannes Willem (1995). The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0415060110. ↩

68. Bertens 1995, pp. 8, 70. - Bertens, Johannes Willem (1995). The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0415060110. ↩

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71. English translation, 1984. ↩

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84. By this Kuhn did not mean that scientific revolutions did not progressively reveal truths about objective reality, only that their lack of a shared vocabulary makes one-to-one comparison impossible, and so requires conceptual translation from one paradigm to another.[71] In spite of Kuhn's own interpretation, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was widely interpreted by its readers as undermining the basic objectivity and rationality of scientific knowledge itself.[66] ↩

85. Goldman 2021, p. 218. - Goldman, Steven L. (2021). Science Wars: The Battle over Knowledge and Reality. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-751862-5. ↩

86. Or financial: In the counter-culture in the 1960s, U.S. military spending on science – which, post-WWII, had been unquestioned – was again made an object of controversy.[73][74] ↩

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