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Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa and the eighth-largest country in Africa. Its capital and largest city is Bamako. Mali was home to powerful West African empires—the Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, and Songhai Empire—that thrived on trans-Saharan trade. In the 14th century, Mansa Musa ruled Mali, making it a center of wealth, Islam, and knowledge, especially in Timbuktu with its historic university. Today, Mali’s economy relies on agriculture and mining, notably as Africa's third-largest producer of gold. In 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali, prompting French military intervention, while political instability has continued with recent military takeovers.

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Etymology

The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire. It means "the place where the king lives"16 and carries a connotation of strength.17

Fourteenth-century Maghrebi traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the empire was called Mali.1819 One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into a hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it was possible to find villages in the area of this river called "old Mali". A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali, there is a village called Malikoma, which means "New Mali", and that Mali could have formerly been the name of a city.20

Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples.2122 It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/ and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises, leading "Manden" to shift to /mali/.23

History

Main article: History of Mali

Before colonization

The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, when the Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife. Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to represent an instance of the independent invention of pottery in the region.24 Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used by around 500 BC. In the first millennium BC, early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to the Soninke people, along the middle Niger River in central Mali, including Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC,25 and Djenne-Djenno, which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD. By the sixth century AD, the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun, facilitating the rise of West Africa's great empires.

There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature. Among these are references to "Pene" and "Malal" in the work of al-Bakri in 1068,26 the story of the conversion of an early ruler, known to Ibn Khaldun (by 1397) as Barmandana,27 and a few geographical details in the work of al-Idrisi.28

Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c. 1312 – c. 1337.29 These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities.30 The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire, which was dominated by the Soninke, a Mande-speaking people.31 The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids.32

The Battle of Kirina in 1235, culminated in a victory for the Mandinka under the command of the exiled prince Sundiata Keita, which led to the downfall of the Sosso Empire.

The Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River, and reached the height of power in the 14th century.33 Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning.34 The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire.35 The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule.36

In the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire.37 The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of the Moroccan invasion of 1591 under the command of Judar Pasha.38 The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads.39 Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers, the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance.40 At that time, the Mali Empire's abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold.

One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe, "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–1756, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu."41

French colonial rule

See also: French West Africa

Mali fell under the control of France during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century.42 By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan.43

In November 1915, a large anti-French uprising broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and Burkina Faso.44 The last resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops.45

On 24 November 1958, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) became an autonomous republic within the French Community.46 In January 1959, Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation.47

Independence

The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960.48 Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, and that date is now the country's Independence Day.49

Modibo Keïta was elected the first president.50 He quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources.51 In 1960, the population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million.52 On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré,53 a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day.54

Moussa Traoré regime

The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought from 1968 to 1974,55 in which famine killed thousands of people.56 The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s.57

Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied.58 In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization in the late 1980s, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.59

In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during the drought.60 Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants.61 Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent.62

From 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les évenements ("the events") or the March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies.63

26 March 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received the death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people who were killed.6465 The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991.66

By 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré.

Multi-party democracy

Opposition parties were legalized, a transitional government was formed and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum.6768 In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for a second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected in 2002.69 During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa.70

Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to a master.71 In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012, ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters.72

Northern Mali conflict

Main article: Mali War

See also: International Criminal Court investigation in Mali

In January 2012 a Tuareg rebellion began in northern Mali, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA).73 In March, military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d'état, citing Touré's failures in quelling the rebellion, and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States.74 The MNLA quickly took control of the north, declaring its independence as Azawad.75 However, Islamist groups, including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), who had helped the MNLA defeat the government, turned on the Tuareg and took control of the north76 with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali.7778

On 11 January 2013, the French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government of president Dioncounda Traoré. On 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals.79 On 2 February, French president François Hollande joined Dioncounda Traoré in a public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu.80

In August 2013, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was elected as the new president of Mali in the second round of the election.81

Conflict in Central Mali

In the central Mali province of Mopti, conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like the Dogon and the Bambara, and the pastoral Fula (or Fulani) people.8283 Historically, the two sides have fought over access to land and water, factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as the Fula move into new areas.84 The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed "self-defense groups"85 to fight the Fula. They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al-Qaeda.86 While some Fula have joined Islamist groups, Human Rights Watch reports that the links have been "exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends".87

Added a top Mali military commander:

I’ve discussed the growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides. Yes, sure, there are jihadists in this zone, but the real problem is banditry, animal theft, score settling – people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as a cover.88

The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias. The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under the guise of being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict.89 The government denies this.90 One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou, created in 2016.91

In the 2018 Malian presidential election held on 29 July 2018,9293 no candidate received more than 50% of the vote in the first round. A runoff was held on 12 August 2018 between the top two candidates, incumbent president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta of the Rally for Mali and Soumaïla Cissé of the Union for the Republic and Democracy, and Keïta was re-elected with 67% of the vote.94

In September 2018, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou "in the context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali".95 However, the group has been blamed for the 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers.96 The group denied the attack, but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband.97 The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Adama Dieng, warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict.98 By 2020, more than 600,000 people had been displaced by the conflict in Mali.99 The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in the conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018. Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias, with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti. It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children.100

During the first week of October 2019, two jihadist attacks in the towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso.101 President Keïta declared that "no military coup will prevail in Mali", continuing by saying that he does not think it "is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us".102 On 1 November 2019, the IS-GS militants killed at least 50 soldiers in the 2019 Indelimane attack in the Ménaka Region of Mali.103 In February 2020, Human Rights Watch documented atrocities against civilians in Central Mali and said that at least 456 civilians were killed, while hundreds were injured from January 2019 until November.104

2020s coups and Assimi Goïta junta

Main articles: 2020 Malian coup d'état and 2021 Malian coup d'état

See also: List of terrorist attacks in Mali

Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in the March and April parliamentary elections, including outrage against the kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé.105106 Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June.107 In July, President Keïta dissolved the constitutional court.

Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goïta and Colonel-Major Ismaël Wagué in Kati, Koulikoro Region, began a mutiny on 18 August 2020.108 President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé were arrested, and shortly after midnight Keïta announced his resignation, saying he did not want to see any bloodshed.109 Wagué announced the formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) and promised elections in the future. A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet.110 The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) condemned the coup and demanded that Keïta be reinstated as president.111

On 12 September 2020, the CNSP agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. Shortly after, Bah N'daw was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020. On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded, almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement.112

Tensions between the civilian transitional government and the military ran high after the handover of power in September 2020. The tensions came to a head on 24 May 2021 after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup – Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone – were replaced by N'daw's administration.113 Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders – President N'daw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré, were being detained in a military base in Kati, outside Bamako.114 On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goïta was sworn into office as the new interim president.115

In 2022 and 2023, the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara saw major gains in the Mali War, occupying large swathes of territory in southeastern Mali. Ansongo and Tidermène were also captured by the group.116 By mid-2023, the militant group had doubled the amount of territory it controlled since the overthrow of the previous government and establishment of the junta.117

On 10 January 2022, Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years.118 On 4 February, France's ambassador was expelled.119 According to Human Rights Watch, Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from the Wagner Group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had started withdrawing French troops from Mali in February 2022, commencing the end of Operation Barkhane.120 On 2 May, the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France, constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian–French relations.121 This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as "illegitimate".122 A UN panel reported that in the first three months of 2022, 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded, warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro-independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years. The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year.123

Sergey Lavrov, the Russian foreign minister, visited Bamako on 7 February 2023 and said that Moscow would continue to help Mali improve its military capabilities.124

In June 2023, Mali removed French, the language of its former colonizer, as an official language with the approval of a new constitution by 97% of voters in a referendum conducted by the junta.125

On 7 September 2023, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked a vessel on the Niger River, killing at least 154 civilians.126

In July 2024, CSP-DPA rebels and JNIM militants killed dozens of Russian mercenaries and Malian government forces during the Battle of Tinzaouaten.127 On 5 August 2024 the Republic of Mali announced that it was severing diplomatic relations with Ukraine.128129

On 17 September 2024, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked several locations across Bamako, killing at least 77 people and injuring 255 others.130

Geography

Main article: Geography of Mali

Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria. It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N, and longitudes 13°W and 5°E. Mali borders Algeria to the north-northeast, Niger to the east, Burkina Faso to the south-east, Ivory Coast to the south, Guinea to the south-west, and Senegal to the west and Mauritania to the north-west.131

At 1,240,192 square kilometres (478,841 sq mi),132 Mali is the 24th-largest country in the world and the eighth-largest country in Africa.133 It is comparable in size to South Africa or Angola. Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara Desert, which produces an extremely hot, dust-laden Sudanian savanna zone.134 Mali is mostly flat, rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand. The Adrar des Ifoghas massif lies in the northeast.

Mali lies in the torrid zone and is among the hottest countries in the world. The thermal equator, which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country.135 Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent.136 Late April to early October is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta.137 The vast northern desert part of Mali has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh) with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The southern areas have a tropical wet and dry climate. (Köppen climate classification Aw) In review, Mali's climate is tropical, with March to May being the hot, dry season. June to October is rainy, humid and mild. November to February is the cool, dry season.

Mali has considerable natural resources, with gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt and limestone being most widely exploited. Mali is estimated to have in excess of 17,400 tonnes of uranium (measured + indicated + inferred).138139 In 2012, a further uranium mineralized north zone was identified.140 Mali faces numerous environmental challenges, including desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, and inadequate supplies of potable water.141

Biodiversity

See also: Wildlife of Mali

Five terrestrial ecoregions lie within Mali's borders: Sahelian Acacia savanna, West Sudanian savanna, Inner Niger Delta flooded savanna, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands.142 The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.16/10, ranking it 51st globally out of 172 countries.143

Politics and government

Main article: Politics of Mali

Government

Until the military coup of 22 March 2012,144145 Mali was a constitutional democracy governed by the Constitution of 12 January 1992, which was amended in 1999.146 The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.147 The system of government can be described as "semi-presidential".148 Executive power is vested in a president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms.149150

The president serves as a chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces.151152 A prime minister appointed by the president serves as head of government and in turn appoints the Council of Ministers.153154 The unicameral National Assembly is Mali's sole legislative body, consisting of deputies elected to five-year terms.155156 Following the 2007 elections, the Alliance for Democracy and Progress held 113 of 160 seats in the assembly.157 The assembly holds two regular sessions each year, during which it debates and votes on legislation that has been submitted by a member or by the government.158159

Mali's constitution provides for an independent judiciary,160161 but the executive continues to exercise influence over the judiciary by virtue of power to appoint judges and oversee both judicial functions and law enforcement.162 Mali's highest courts are the Supreme Court, which has both judicial and administrative powers, and a separate Constitutional Court that provides judicial review of legislative acts and serves as an election arbiter.163164 Various lower courts exist, though village chiefs and elders resolve most local disputes in rural areas.165

The transition government pushed back the timetable for a new election, initially to be held in February 2022, to February 2024.166 In exchange for the government's commitment to a 2024 election, ECOWAS agreed to lift sanctions on the country.167

Foreign relations

Main articles: Foreign relations of Mali and France–Mali relations

Until 2012, Mali's foreign policy orientation had become increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time.168 Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali's relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly.169 Mali has a longstanding yet ambivalent relationship with France, a former colonial ruler.170 Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup d'état.171172

Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals.173 Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy.174 General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.175

In early 2019, Al Qaeda claimed responsibility for an attack on a United Nations base in Mali that killed 10 peacekeepers from Chad. 25 people were reported to have been injured in the attack. Al Qaeda's stated reason for the attack was Chad's re-establishing diplomatic ties with Israel. The base was attacked in Anguelhok, a village located in an especially unstable region of the country.176177

Military

Further information: Military of Mali

Mali's military forces consist of an army, which includes land forces and air force,178 as well as the paramilitary Gendarmerie and Republican Guard, all of which are under the control of Mali's Ministry of Defense and Veterans, headed by a civilian.

Regions and cercles

Main articles: Regions of Mali, Cercles of Mali, and Communes of Mali

Since 2016, Mali has been divided into ten regions and the District of Bamako.179 Each region has a governor.180 The implementation of the two newest regions, Taoudénit (formerly part of Tombouctou Region) and Ménaka (formerly Ménaka Cercle in Gao Region), has been ongoing since January 2016;181182 a governor and transitional council has been appointed for both regions.183

Since 2023, Mali has added nine new regions to its administrative structure, bringing the total to 19 regions plus the district of Bamako. This reorganization aims to improve governance and bring public services closer to local populations. This initiative continues the decentralization efforts that began with the creation of the Taoudénit and Ménaka regions in 2016. The nineteen regions in turn are subdivided into 159 cercles and 815 communes.184185

The régions and Capital District are:186187

NoRegion nameArea (km2)PopulationCensus 2023
00BamakoCapital District2524,227,569
01Kayes62,9141,840,329
02Koulikoro71,1782,255,157
03Sikasso21,3781,533,123
04Ségou31,9962,455,263
05Mopti49,077935,579
06Tombouctou180,781974,278
07Gao89,532727,517
08Kidal151,43083,192
09Taoudénit323,326100,358
10Ménaka81,040318,876
11Bougouni41,0521,570,979
12Dioila12,984675,965
13Nioro24,179678,061
14Koutiala14,7391,169,882
15Kita44,175681,671
16Nara26,213307,777
17Bandiagara25,709868,916
18San15,516820,807
19Douentza63,515170,189
Total1,240,19222,395,489

Economy

Main article: Economy of Mali

The Central Bank of West African States handles the financial affairs of Mali and additional members of the Economic Community of West African States. Mali is considered one of the poorest countries in the world.188 The average worker's annual salary is approximately US$1,500.189

Mali underwent economic reform, beginning in 1988 by signing agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.190 During 1988 to 1996, Mali's government largely reformed public enterprises. Since the agreement, sixteen enterprises were privatized, 12 partially privatized, and 20 liquidated.191 In 2005, the Malian government conceded a railroad company to the Savage Corporation.192 Two major companies, Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT), were expected to be privatized in 2008.193

Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment programme that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances. The programme increased social and economic conditions, and led to Mali joining the World Trade Organization on 31 May 1995.194

Mali is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).195 The gross domestic product (GDP) has risen since. In 2002, the GDP amounted to US$3.4 billion,196 and increased to US$5.8 billion in 2005,197 which amounts to an approximately 17.6% annual growth rate.

Mali is a part of the "Franc Zone" (Zone Franc), which means that it uses the CFA franc. Mali is connected with the French government by agreement since 1962 (creation of BCEAO). Today all seven countries of BCEAO (including Mali) are connected to French Central Bank.198

Before the August 2020 coup, U.S. foreign assistance to Mali exceeded $135 million in FY 2020, aiming to bolster fragile peace, democratic governance and regional security, while addressing social and economic vulnerabilities. Post-coup, assistance is restricted under U.S. law, but ongoing programs focus on stability, public trust in government, community resilience and socio-economic prosperity.199

Mali was ranked 136th out of 139 in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.200

Agriculture

Mali's key industry is agriculture. Cotton is the country's largest crop export and is exported west throughout Senegal and Ivory Coast.201202 During 2002, 620,000 tons of cotton were produced in Mali but cotton prices declined significantly in 2003.203204 In addition to cotton, Mali produces rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops. Gold, livestock, and agriculture amount to 80% of Mali's exports.205

Eighty percent of Malian workers are employed in agriculture. 15% of Malian workers are employed in the service sector.206 Seasonal variations lead to regular temporary unemployment of agricultural workers.207

Mining

In 1991, with the assistance of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to renewed foreign interest and investment in the mining industry.208 Gold is mined in the southern region and Mali has the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana).209 In 2015, the country has produced 41 metric tonnes of gold.210

The emergence of gold as Mali's leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Ivory Coast crises.211 Other natural resources include kaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone.212

Energy

See also: List of power stations in Mali

Electricity and water are maintained by the Energie du Mali, or EDM, and textiles are generated by Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA.213 Mali has made efficient use of hydroelectricity, consisting of over half of Mali's electrical power. In 2002, 700 GWh of hydroelectric power were produced in Mali.214

Energie du Mali is an electric company that provides electricity to Mali citizens. Only 55 percent of the population in cities have access to EDM.215

Transport infrastructure

Main article: Transport in Mali

In Mali, there is a railway that connects to bordering countries. There are also approximately 29 airports, of which 8 have paved runways.216 Urban areas are known for their large quantity of green and white taxicabs. A significant sum of the population is dependent on public transportation.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Mali

Population in Mali217218
YearMillion
19504.7
200011
202121.9

In 2021, Mali's population was an estimated 21.9 million.219220 Mali's population grew from 7.7 million in 1982 to 19.9 million in 2018.221 The population is predominantly rural (68% in 2002), and 5%–10% of Malians are nomadic.222 More than 90% of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 2 million residents.223

In 2024, about 47% of Malians were 14 years old or younger, 50% were 15–64 years old, and 3% were 65 and older.224 The median age was 16.4 years.225 The birth rate in 2024 was 40 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate in 2024 was 5.35 children per woman.226 The death rate in 2024 was 8.1 deaths per 1,000.227 Life expectancy at birth was 63.2 years total (60.9 for males and 65.6 for females).228 Mali has one of the world's highest rates of infant mortality,229 with 57.4 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2024.230

Largest cities in Mali

For a more comprehensive list, see List of cities in Mali.

 
  • v
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Largest cities or towns in MaliAccording to the 2009 Census231
RankNameRegionPop.
BamakoSikasso1BamakoBamako1,810,366
2SikassoSikasso226,618
3KoutialaSikasso141,444
4SégouSégou133,501
5KayesKayes126,319
6MoptiMopti120,786
7KalabancoroKoulikoro96,173
8GaoGao86,353
9KatiKoulikoro84,500
10SanSégou66,967

Ethnic groups

Mali's population encompasses a number of sub-Saharan ethnic groups. The Bambara are by far the largest single ethnic group, making up a third of the population.232 The largest ethnic groups are Bambara (33.3%), Fulani (Peuhl) (13.3%), Sarakole/Soninke/Marka (9.8%), Senufo/Manianka (9.6%), Malinke (8.8%), Dogon (8.7%), Sonrai (5.9%), Bobo (2.1%), Tuareg/Bella (1.7%), other Malian (6%), from members of Economic Community of West Africa (0.4%), other (0.3%) (2018 est.).233 In Mali and in Niger, the Moors are also known as Azawagh Arabs, named after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. They speak mainly Hassaniya Arabic, one of the regional varieties of Arabic.234

In the far north, there is a division between Berber-descended Tuareg nomad populations and the darker-skinned Bella or Tamasheq people, due to the historical spread of slavery in the region. An estimated 800,000 people in Mali are descended from slaves.235 Slavery has persisted in Mali for centuries.236 The Arabic population kept slaves well into the 20th century, until slavery was suppressed by French authorities around the mid-20th century. There still persist certain hereditary servitude relationships,237238 and according to some estimates, even today approximately 200,000 Malians are still enslaved.239

Some mixed European/African descendants of Muslims of Spanish, as well as French, Irish, Italian and Portuguese origin, live in Mali, where they are known as the Arma people (1% of the nation's population).240

Although Mali has enjoyed reasonably good inter-ethnic relationships based on a long history of coexistence, some hereditary servitude and bondage relationship exist, as well as ethnic tension between settled Songhai and nomadic Tuaregs of the north.241 Due to a backlash against the northern population after independence, Mali is now in a situation where both groups complain about discrimination on the part of the other group.242 This conflict also plays a role in the continuing Northern Mali conflict where there is a tension between both Tuaregs and the Malian government, and the Tuaregs and radical Islamists who are trying to establish sharia law.243

Languages

Spoken Languages in Mali (2009 Census)244
Spoken Languagespercent
Bambara 51.82%
Fula 8.29%
Dogon 6.48%
Maraka / Soninké 5.69%
Songhai / Zarma 5.27%
Mandinka 5.12%
Minyanka 3.77%
Tamasheq 3.18%
Senufo 2.03%
Bobo 1.89%
Bozo 1.58%
Kassonké 1.07%
Maure 1%
Samogo 0.43%
Dafing 0.41%
Arabic 0.33%
Hausa 0.03%
Other Malian 0.49%
Other African 0.18%
Other foreign 0.18%
Not Stated 0.75%
Mother Tongues in Mali (2009 Census)245
Mother Tonguespercent
Bambara 46.5%
Fula 9.39%
Dogon 7.12%
Maraka / Soninké 6.33%
Mandinka 5.6%
Songhai / Zarma 5.58%
Minianka 4.29%
Tamasheq 3.4%
Senufo 2.56%
Bobo 2.15%
Bozo 1.85%
Kassonké 1.17%
Maure 1.1%
Samogo 0.5%
Dafing 0.46%
Arabic 0.34%
Hausa 0.04%
Other Malian 0.55%
Other African 0.31%
Other Foreign 0.08%
Not Stated 0.69%

Main article: Languages of Mali

In January 2022, due to deteriorating relations between Mali and the French government, the Mali government announced making Bambara the official language.246 In July 2023, French was dropped as an official language, becoming instead a working language.247 At the same time, the 13 national languages,248 namely Bambara, Bobo, Bozo, Dogon, Fula, Hassaniya Arabic, Kassonke, Maninke, Minyanka, Senufo, the Songhay languages, Soninke and Tamasheq, became official languages.249 The lingua franca in Mali is mainly Bambara, which about 80 percent of the population can communicate in.250 Over 40 other African languages are spoken by the various ethnic groups of Mali.251

According to the 2009 census, the languages spoken natively in Mali were Bambara by 51.5%, Fula (8.3%), Dogon (6.6%) Soninké (5.7%), Songhai (5.3%), Mandinka (5.2%), Minianka (3.8%), Tamasheq (3.2%), Sénoufo (2%), Bobo (1.9%), Tieyaxo Bozo (1.6%), Kassonké (1.1%), Maure (1%), Dafing (0.4%), Samogo (0.4%), Arabic (Hassaniya) (0.3%), other Malian languages (0.5%), other African languages (0.2%), and other non-African languages (0.2%); 0.7% did not declare their first language.252

Religion

Main article: Religion in Mali

Religion in Mali253
ReligionPercent
Islam 90%
Christianity 5%
Indigenous 5%

Islam was introduced to West Africa in the 11th century and remains the predominant religion in much of the region. An estimated 90% of Malians are Muslim (mostly Sunni254), approximately 5% are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant) and the remaining 5% adhere to traditional African religions such as the Dogon religion.255 Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practise their religion daily.256

The constitution establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religion, and the government largely respects this right.257

Islam as historically practised in Mali has been malleable and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths have generally been amicable.258 After the 2012 imposition of sharia rule in northern parts of the country, however, Mali came to be listed high (number 7) in the Christian persecution index published by Open Doors, which described the persecution in the north as severe.259260

Education

Main article: Education in Mali

Public education in Mali is in principle provided free of charge and is compulsory for nine years between the ages of seven and sixteen.261 The system encompasses six years of primary education beginning at age 7, followed by six years of secondary education.262 Mali's actual primary school enrolment rate is low, in large part because families are unable to cover the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and other fees required to attend.263

In 2017, the primary school enrolment rate was 61% (65% of males and 58% of females).264 In the late 1990s, the secondary school enrolment rate was 15% (20% of males and 10% of females).265 The education system is plagued by a lack of schools in rural areas, as well as shortages of teachers and materials.266

Estimates of literacy rates in Mali range from 27–30 to 46.4%, with literacy rates significantly lower among women than men.267 The University of Bamako, which includes four constituent universities, is the largest university in the country and enrols approximately 60,000 undergraduate and graduate students.268

Health

Main article: Health in Mali

Mali faces numerous health challenges related to poverty, malnutrition, and inadequate hygiene and sanitation.269 Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world.270 Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 63.2 years in 2024.271 In 2000, 62–65% of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69% to sanitation services of some kind.272 In 2001, the general government expenditures on health totaled about US$4 per capita at an average exchange rate.273

Efforts have been made to improve nutrition, and reduce associated health problems, by encouraging women to make nutritious versions of local recipes. For example, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation, trained women's groups to make equinut, a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe di-dèguè (comprising peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell, and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage.274

Medical facilities in Mali are very limited, and medicines are in short supply.275 Malaria and other arthropod-borne diseases are prevalent in Mali, as are a number of infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis.276 Mali's population also suffers from a high rate of child malnutrition and a low rate of immunization.277 An estimated 1.9% of the adult and children population was afflicted with HIV/AIDS that year, among the lowest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa.278 An estimated 85%–91% of Mali's girls and women have had female genital mutilation (2006 and 2001 data).279280

In 2024, approximately 7.1 million people in Mali, including over 3.8 million children, require urgent humanitarian assistance due to escalating conflict and climate crises. UNICEF is amplifying its efforts to provide essential services like health, education, and protection, while appealing for $133.5 million to address these needs. The situation is dire, with over 522,000 children lacking access to education and millions at risk of malnutrition amid underfunded humanitarian responses. Urgent action is needed to mitigate the impacts of violence, insecurity and climate change on vulnerable populations in Mali.281

Gender equality

In 2017, Mali ranked 157th out of 160 countries in the gender inequality index as reported by the United Nations Development Programme.282 The Malian Constitution states that it protects women's rights, however many laws exist that discriminate against women.283 Provisions in the laws limit women's decision-making power after marriage, in which the husband becomes superior to his wife.284 Women are blamed for not maintaining the appearance of their husbands and are also blamed for the actions of their children if they misbehave, which encourages the cultural attitude that women are inferior to men.285 The lack of participation of women in politics is due to the idea that politics is associated with men and that women should avoid this sector.286 Education is also an area in which boys dominate, since it is a better investment for the parents.287 As traditional values and practices have contributed to gender inequality in Mali, conflict and lawlessness have also influenced the growing gap in gender through gender-based violence.288 The unstable government of Mali has led to organizations like USAID attempting to improve the lives of the people, mainly women and girls' rights in order to re-engage the development of the country.289

Gender relations

Religion, the patriarchal norms, and gender-based violence are major negative factors shaping the life of women in Mali.290 Patriarchal norms cause major gender inequalities and lead to male domination within the household.291 Girls learn household activities like chores, cooking, childcare, etc. at a young age and are expected to take the main responsibility of household chores throughout their life. This hampers women's ability to enter the formal workforce and leads to a lack of education of girls.292 Gender-based violence in Mali happens both on a national and a family level. At the national level, in 2012 the conflict in the Northern part of the country increased cases of kidnappings and rapes.293 The conflict also reduced women's access to resources, economy, and opportunities.294 At the household level, Malian women face gender-based violence through domestic violence, forced marriages, and marital rape.295 The Demographic Health Survey for Mali in 2013 stated that 76% of women and 54% of men believed physical harm towards women was acceptable if the women burnt food, argued back, went out without notifying her husband, or refused sexual relations with her husband.296 In 2024, Mali officials approved a bill criminalising homosexual relations between same-sex couples.297

Area of opportunity

The lack of education has increased gender inequality in Mali because not many women are working outside the household are even participating in the Public Administration sector.298 After adjusting the entrance requirements and access to education, girls still have lower enrollment rates and less access to formal education.299 Drop-out rates for girls are 15% higher than that of boys because they have a higher responsibility at home and most parents refuse to allow all their children to go to school, so boys tend to become educated.300 Similarly, technical and vocational education has a lower numbers of girls participating and are inadequately distributed in the country because the training centers are focused in the urban cities.301 Finally, higher education for girls consist of short programs because early marriages prevent most girls from pursuing a longer term education program like those in science.302 Although women do not have the same access of education, in recent decades women have been entering and representing in decision-making positions in the Public Administration sector.303 Out of 147 members of Parliament, 15 were women in 2010.304 Recent decades show that women are slowly joining important decision-making positions which is changing the attitude and status of women in Mali, which has led to the promotion of women's rights in the political sphere.305

Efforts

Legislation at the international and national levels have been implemented over the decades to help promote women's rights in Mali.306 At the international, Mali signed the Beijing Platform for Action which suggest that women should participate in decision-making and the convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women which is the foundation to women's rights promotion.307 At the national level, Mali's Constitution has the Decree No. 092-073P-CTSP that claims equality to all Malian citizens and discrimination is prohibited, which has not been followed.308 The Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme (PRSP) and the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme under the Malian Government seek to improve the well-being of the citizens, and changes to governance and gender in the country.309 The Ministry for Advancement of Women, Children and the Family was created specifically for women and children so that their basics rights and needs get met under the law.310 Although there exists legislation and policy for gender equality the institutionalization of the National Gender Policy of Mali is necessary to support the importance of women's rights.311 Strengthening and the support of girls' and women's access to education and training is recommended to improve gender equality in Mali.312 The involvement of international organizations like USAID assist Mali financially to enhance their development through the efforts of the improvement of women's rights.313

Culture

Main article: Culture of Mali

The varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity.314 Most Malians wear flowing, colorful robes called boubous that are typical of West Africa. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies.315

Music

Main article: Music of Mali

Malian musical traditions are derived from the griots, who are known as "Keepers of Memories".316 Malian music is diverse and has several different genres. Some famous Malian influences in music are kora virtuoso musician Toumani Diabaté, the ngoni with Bassekou Kouyate the virtuoso of the electric jeli ngoni, the late roots and blues guitarist Ali Farka Touré, the Tuareg band Tinariwen, Khaira Arby, and several Afro-pop artists such as Salif Keita, the duo Amadou et Mariam, Oumou Sangare, Fatoumata Diawara, Rokia Traore, and Habib Koité. Dance also plays a large role in Malian culture.317 Dance parties are common events among friends, and traditional mask dances are performed at ceremonial events.318

Literature

Though Mali's literature is less famous than its music,319 Mali has always been one of Africa's liveliest intellectual centers.320 Mali's literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart.321322 Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember.323

The best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem's Le devoir de violence, which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism.324325 Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Massa Makan Diabaté, Moussa Konaté, and Fily Dabo Sissoko.326327

Sport

The most popular sport in Mali is association football,328329 which became more prominent after Mali hosted the 2002 African Cup of Nations.330331 Most towns and cities have regular games;332 the most popular teams nationally are Djoliba AC, Stade Malien, and Real Bamako, all based in the capital.333 Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball.334

Basketball is another major sport;335336 the Mali women's national basketball team, led by Hamchetou Maiga, competed at the 2008 Beijing Olympics.337 Traditional wrestling (la lutte) is also somewhat common, though popularity has declined in recent years.338 The game wari, a mancala variant, is a common pastime.339

Mali featured a men's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup.340

Cuisine

Main article: Malian cuisine

Rice and millet are the staples of Malian cuisine, which is heavily based on cereal grains.341342 Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from edible leaves, such as spinach or baobab, with tomato peanut sauce, and may be accompanied by pieces of grilled meat (typically chicken, mutton, beef, or goat).343344 Malian cuisine varies regionally.345346 Other popular dishes include fufu, jollof rice, and maafe.

Media

Main article: Media of Mali

In Mali, there are several newspapers such as Les Echos, L'Essor, Info Matin, Nouvel Horizon, and Le Républicain [fr].347 Office de Radiodiffusion-Télévision du Mali is the state-owned service. Telecommunications in Mali include 869,600 mobile phones, 45,000 televisions and 414,985 Internet users.348

See also

  • Mali portal
  • Africa portal

Notes

Bibliography

17°N 4°W / 17°N 4°W / 17; -4

References

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