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Etymology

In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara (Malagasy pronunciation: [madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥]) and its people are referred to as Malagasy.¹³¹⁴ The origin of the name is uncertain,¹⁵ and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the Middle Ages by Europeans.¹⁶ If this is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited.¹⁷

One hypothesis relates Madagascar to the word Malay, referring to the Austronesian origin of the Malagasy people in modern-day Indonesia. In a map by Muhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is named Gesira Malai, or "Malay island" in Arabic. The inversion of this name to Malai Gesira, as it was known by the Greeks, is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island.¹⁸ The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as Malichu, an abbreviated form of Malai Insula, in the medieval Hereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar.¹⁹²⁰

Another hypothesis is that Madagascar is a corrupted transliteration of Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia and an important medieval Indian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of Madageiscar to the south of Socotra. This name would then have been popularized on Renaissance maps by Europeans.²¹²² One of the first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it Madagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser.²³²⁴ Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of Mogadishu and Adal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on the coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar.^25262728 Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, a Dutch traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it.²⁹³⁰

The name Malagasikara, or Malagascar, is also historically attested. A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from "Malagaskar" to what eventually became New York City.³¹ An 1882 edition of the British newspaper The Graphic referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of Malay origin, and may be related to the name of Malacca.³² In 1891, Saleh bin Osman, a Zanzibari traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition.³³ In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that Malagasikara was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were Malagasy, and not Madagasy.³⁴

History

Main article: History of Madagascar

Early period

Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo, possibly throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand.³⁵ It is proposed that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javan and Sumatran-Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar.^36373839 Dates of settlement of the island earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported.⁴⁰ However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. (See History of Madagascar).⁴¹⁴² Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.⁴³⁴⁴⁴⁵

Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna,⁴⁶ including 17 species of giant lemurs, the large flightless elephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, Aepyornis maximus), the giant fossa, and several species of Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction.⁴⁷ By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands.⁴⁸

Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries.⁴⁹ A wave of Bantu-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000.⁵⁰ Around this time, zebu from South India were first brought, intermingling with sanga found in East Africa.⁵¹

Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later.⁵² The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.⁵³

The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo, and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries.⁵⁴ Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.⁵⁵

Arab and European contacts

The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.⁵⁶ The Arabs also contributed to the blood mixture that today forms the Malagasy people. As masters of the entire African coastline, they repeatedly sent numerous migrations to the island, using the Comoros Islands as stopovers. Their traces can still be found along all the coasts, although it is doubtful that they ever penetrated far inland, since their colonies were founded mainly for commercial purposes. The Arabs primarily bought slaves, especially Hova slaves from the center of the island for the Indian Ocean markets. They were never able to convert the indigenous population to Islam, but they did manage to introduce some Muslim practices into local customs, which became widespread across the island. These included circumcision, abstaining from eating pork, and aversion of dogs.These customs led some early European travelers to wrongly believe that several tribes followed the doctrine of Muhammad.⁵⁷⁵⁸ European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada of the Portuguese India Armadas.⁵⁹

Portuguese colonization

In 1506, the Portuguese failed in their attempts to destroy Arab-Antalaotra settlements in Northern Madagascar despite violent raids led by Tristão da Cunha and Afonso de Albuquerque. Portuguese efforts of Christianization there also failed when their missionaries were massacred by natives. The Portuguese then resorted to the slave trade, buying slaves from the Arabs or Antalaotra when they did not acquire them directly through deceit or violence.⁶⁰⁶¹ When the enterprise of colonization in the northwestern Madagascar was undone, the Portuguese, directed their ambition toward the southeastern coasts. In 1548, the Portuguese made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a settlement in the bay of Ranofotsy or Gallions bay in Anosy. The expedition ended in tragedy when Portuguese sailors and missionaries were attacked and massacred by the Antanosy people. The few survivors sought refuge in a stone house they had constructed and managed to defend themselves. In retaliation, they launched frequent raids on nearby villages, burning homes and demanding ransoms from local Inhabitants until they were rescued by Portuguese ships.

At the same time, another violent incident occurred in the Matatana region, where 80 Portuguese settlers were killed in a separate massacre by the locals. These tragic events likely discouraged further Portuguese expeditions to Madagascar for several decades.⁶²⁶³

During this period, Portugal came under the rule of Spain, which focused primarily on its colonies in the Americas and the lucrative Spice Islands. As a result, Madagascar—seen as less economically valuable—was largely neglected. Substantial Portuguese activity on the island did not resume until the early 17th century.

The Portuguese, who had not yet founded any establishment in Madagascar, yet fervently desired to do so through evangelization. In 1613, they found their wishes nearly realized when Andriandramaka, the son of the king of Fanshere Andriatsiambany  having lately forged friendly relations with the Portuguese arrived in their city of Goa as a hostage. The king agreed to send his son Andriandramaka to Goa, while two missionaries and four Portuguese stayed as hostages on Santa-Cruz, near Saint-Lucas. The king gave Santa-Cruz to the missionaries to build a church.

The young prince from Fanshere was treated kindly in Goa by Viceroy Jerónimo de Azevedo. He was educated by Jesuit priests and baptized. He promised that, if he could return to his homeland, he would convince his father to accept an alliance with the Portuguese and to adopt Christianity. People believed he would keep his promise.

In 1615, the viceroy prepared four large ships with around 100 soldiers and four Jesuit missionaries. The mission's goal was to spread the Christian faith in Fanshere. The fleet left Goa with high hopes. However, less than a year later, the ships returned. The mission had failed. The Jesuit priests advised leaving because the people of Fanshère had not welcomed them. The king, persuaded by the Ombiasses—priests completely changed his attitude towards the Portuguese. He even forbade his subjects to give or sell any food to the foreigners. This left the Portuguese in a desperate situation. One of the missionaries soon died, and another, along with six companions, quickly left on a Portuguese ship to return to India. The new failure of the expedition from Goa, added to others like it, discouraged Portugal. Seeing Madagascar only as a graveyard for its soldiers, Portugal decided to abandon it for good. This left the island open for other nations to try, at their own risk, to conquer it.⁶⁴

Dutch and English colonies

At that time, the English and the Dutch were competing for control of the Indian Empire. From 1618 to 1640, these two Protestant nations tried to establish rival settlements on various parts of the island and nearby islands. However, their colonization efforts, which were not very serious, ended in ruins and abandonment.

The Dutch, who settled on the east coast near Antongil Bay and Sainte-Marie, died of malaria or were killed by the Malagasy people.⁶⁵ In 1646, out of 140 settlers led by John Smart to Saint Augustine Bay (now Toliara), only 63 survived. The others died from disease, hunger—like the fate of the Portuguese in Anosy or were killed by the locals.

In 1649, a second English colony attempt by Robert Hunt at Assada (present-day Nosy Be) also ended with the massacre of the settlers, often by trickery. The Malagasy were very harsh toward Europeans. In 1686, English pirates who came to Nosy Be to for partying were massacred by the locals because of mistreatment by a previous English crew. The only survivor was Robert Everard, who became a slave to a local king. He only gained his freedom when he was sold to an Arab trader, and then resold to an Englishman in Muscat after spending two years on the island.⁶⁶⁶⁷⁶⁸

French colony of Fort-Dauphin

France's colonization of Madagascar began in 1642, initiated by Cardinal Richelieu and formalized by letters patent signed by Louis XIII and later confirmed by Louis XIV. The goal was to establish a commercial and strategic outpost in the Indian Ocean to rival British influence. The Compagnie de l’Orient was entrusted with the venture. In 1643, the first expedition, led by Pronis and Fouquembourg, arrived with about 200 settlers. The colony was first established at Sainte-Luce, then moved to Fort-Dauphin due to unhealthy conditions. Posts were also briefly opened at Fenerive and Mananara, but all were quickly abandoned because of disease and poor location.

From the start, the colony was plagued by mismanagement and cruelty under Pronis. He favored his Malagasy wife's extended family by wasting supplies on them while treating French settlers effectively as slaves. In 1646, settlers imprisoned Pronis. After six months, he was freed and punished the rebels by exile in La Réunion then Bourbon Island. In a notorious act, Pronis sold Malagasy servants, including sixteen women of the high caste of Lohavohitsy, to the Dutch governor of Mauritius, Van der Mester, triggering massive outrage among natives. This betrayal violated the generous hospitality of the Malagasy and caused hostility. The Compagnie de l’Orient, alarmed by his actions, sent Étienne de Flacourt to replace him. Flacourt returned to France in 1654 and he was killed by Algerian pirates when coming back to Madagascar in 1655.

Military raids for supplies started by Flacourt later continued by his successors kept the colony in a constant state of war with the natives. The colony suffered greatly: Fort-Dauphin burned accidentally in 1655 and was not rebuilt until 1663. When it was reestablished, Chamargou was governor. A French named Lacase married to a local princess Dian Nong or Andrianony once saved the colony by supplying it with foods from their realm of Ambolo. Like happened before with the Portuguese and the English settlers, all neighboring Malagasy chiefs refused food supplies to the fort. This blockade, combined with fever and disease, reduced the number of French settlers.

By the early 1670s, the colony at Fort-Dauphin was reduced to only 127 French settlers, remnants of the original 4,000 émigrants. Isolated, underprovisioned, and lacking gunpowder, the settlers survived only through marriages with Malagasy noblewomen, a practice initiated by Pronis and continued by later governors, including La Bretesche, who married the daughter of La Case and Dian Nong. These marriages provided temporary peace, as Malagasy wives acted as intermediaries between settlers and local communities. However, when Captain de Beauregard arrived (in defiance of orders to go directly to Île Bourbon), he brought with him 16 French women meant for marriage in Bourbon. They demanded to be married in Madagascar instead, pressuring missionaries and the governor. By August 1674, five marriages had taken place, and more were planned. The arrival of French women deeply offended the Malagasy wives, who had long held authority in the colony. Their resentment led them to withdraw their protection. On 27 August 1674,French colonists were mercilessly massacred by the natives. The colony was doomed. Luckily, a Company ship the Blanc-Pignon appeared, and La Bretesche organized an emergency evacuation. On 9 September 1674, 63 survivors boarded the ship, abandoning Fort-Dauphin. They spiked the cannons, burned the supplies, and left the settlement behind.^69707172

Pirate settlements

The pirates formed an establishment, at the island of St. Mary but later abandonned for other settlements on the eastern coast of Madagascar due a general effort by the European powers, interested in the India trade, indispensably to suppress them.

Pirates married local women and they often supported native princes lacking fire-arms in their inter-tribal wars, carrying terror wherever they went. Half a dozen pirates with a small native army would put a much larger number of the enemy to flight.

The most famous pirate settlement was called Libertatia. It was founded by French pirate, of the name of Misson, in conjunction with an Italian named Caraccioli, as a sort of republican commonwealth on the northeastern coast of Madagascar. English pirate Captain Tew joined later the settlement where was built a fort and a town. From this settlement, they sent out their ships on marauding expeditions in the Indian Ocean. One of their greatest success was the capture of a Moorish vessel, bound for Mecca, with pilgrims, having on board a hundred women whom they detained, as wives in their colony. The destruction of this settlement arose from an unexpected cause. The colonists had lived on the most amicable terms with the natives, for a long period, and ceased to entertain any fear of enemies from the interior. They were, therefore, completely off their guard in this quarter, and the natives, incited by some unknown motives, taking advantage of this unsuspecting confidence, made a sudden attack upon them, in two bodies, at the dead of night, slaughtering nearly the whole of them, without respect to age or sex, before they had time to put themselves in a posture of defence. Caraccioli was killed, Tew was absent, and Misson escaped with forty-five men.  Many pirate settlements were destroyed by natives as the fate of Libertatia.⁷³⁷⁴⁷⁵

Formation of Malagasy kingdoms

See also: Kingdom of Andrantsay, Kingdom of Manandriana, Kingdom of Isandra, Kingdom of Lalangina, and Fisakana

The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century.⁷⁶ Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.⁷⁷

French East India Company Possession of Sainte-Marie, the graveyard of the French

Around 1750, Ratsimilaho's daughter Betia ceded Sainte-Marie to the French East India Company. Tragedy came swiftly, as mass death from fever decimated the colony in its early months that earned the island the title the Frenchman's graveyard. The colonial agent in command Gosse reckless behavior toward Betia's mother Matavy provoked the latter's vengeance. Betia continued to favour the French setllers and counteract her mother's treacherous plans, until an accusation was brought against M. Gosse which was so grave that she could no longer defend him. Gosse well known for his cruelty to the natives was accused of violating the sacred tomb of the late chief, Ratsimilaho, allegedly in search of treasure. Whether true or not, the accusation outraged the local population and led to a violent response. A massacre was secretly planned and executed on Christmas Eve 1754, during which nearly all French settlers were killed.

In response, the Governor of Île de France dispatched a man-of-war to Sainte-Marie with orders for retribution. French forces ravaged the island: villages were burned, inhabitants were slaughtered indiscriminately, and escapees attempting to flee by boat were targeted by naval gunfire. The mastermind of the massacre Ratsimilaho's widow Matavy drowned while trying to cross Antongil Bay, and Betia, among the surviving captives, was deported to Île de France (Mauritius) to face trial. However, she was acquitted and returned to Foulepointe with honors and gifts. The colony was eventually abandoned in 1761. ⁷⁸⁷⁹ No French settlements existed on the island until 1811. Misinterpreting the Treaty of Paris, Sir Robert Farquhar, governor of British-controlled Isle of France, attempts to establish a post at Sainte-Marie but the English was again massacred by the natives except for one survivor. The massacre was avenged by the English who occupy briefly the island until it was ceded back to France in 1818.⁸⁰

French Reoccupation of Fort-Dauphin under Maudave

In 1766, Maudave was appointed by the French Minister of the Navy to lead a new expedition and restore Fort Dauphin. The project was financed by the colony of Île de France, following a detailed plan and memorandum he had prepared, which received full approval from the ministry.

Maudave landed at Fort Dauphin in 1768 with a small group of officers, soldiers, and farmers. Favoring a peaceful approach to colonization, he gained the sympathy of local chiefs, who ceded approximately nine square leagues of land to the French crown.

Encouraged by early success, Maudave envisioned a thriving agricultural and commercial settlement. However, his efforts were undermined by Desroches, the newly appointed and jealous governor of Île de France, who sent a misleading report to France. The metropole subsequently withdrew support, forcing Maudave to abandon Fort Dauphin in 1769 and return to France with his plans unrealized.^{81 82}

Benyowski expedition

Benyowski was a Polish-Hungarian noble captured by the Russians during the siege of Kraków and was deported the distant Kamchatka Peninsula in eastern Siberia. He led a spectacular evasion after five months of Captivity with fellow prisoners on a seized Russian frigate,the first to make a perilous journey across the Northern Pacific Ocean to the South China Sea.

During his escape, Benyowski visited Japan, the coasts of China, Annam (modern Vietnam), Formosa (Taiwan), Macao, Madagascar and Île de France (modern Mauritius), before finally reaching France. There, he presented his colonial plans to the Duke of Choiseul, proposing a new French enterprise in Madagascar (then often referred to as Île Dauphine).

With the support of the Duke of Aiguillon, Benyowski obtained command of a French expedition to reestablish colonial influence in Madagascar. He departed from Lorient on 14 February 1774 with a small military corps, arriving at Antongil Bay on 14 January 1774. There, he took possession of the island in the name of the King of France and was recognized as governor-general.

Highly active and popular among the Malagasy, Benyowski quickly forged alliances with local chiefs, planned and founded the town of Louisbourg, and constructed a series of forts, roads, and canals along the eastern coast (including at Antongil, Fénérive Est, Foulepointe, Mananara, and Antsiraka). He successfully repelled attacks from northern Sakalava warriors with the help of his indigenous allies.

In October 1776, a grand kabary (assembly) of Northern Malagasy chiefs proclaimed Benyowski as sovereign chief of Madagascar and charged him with presenting their submission to the French king for a vassal state. However, upon his arrival in Paris, he was met with suspicion and hostility, particularly from powerful trade interests in the Mascarene Islands. Failing to gain official support, he offered his plans to Britain and Austria, who declined to support him out of respect for French territorial claims.

In 1784, Benyowski traveled to the United States, where he secured backing from Benjamin Franklin and a Baltimore company to return to Madagascar. Arriving with an American ship, he landed on the island's west coast, crossed overland to Antongil Bay, and reestablished himself at Louisbourg in 1785. He was enthusiastically welcomed by local leaders and proclaimed himself Ampanzakabe or the King of Madagascar. He is the first claiming the title King of Madagascar. To consolidate his authority across the island, he entrusted Mayeur with a secret mission to the southern and central peoples of Madagascar who had not yet recognized his rule through the solemn serment-de-sang (blood oath) ceremonies. These included the kings of Betsileo, Andratsay, Imerina, Bezanozano, and Betanimena. Alarmed by his independent authority, the French colonial administration viewed him as a threat. In 1786, M. de Souillac, governor of Pondicherry, dispatched an expedition under M. Larcher and Captain Labé to suppress him. In 1787, Benyowski was killed during an assault on Fort Mauritiana.⁸³⁸⁴

Merina rule of Madagascar

Main article: Merina Kingdom

Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms⁸⁵ and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810).⁸⁶ From his initial capital Ambohimanga,⁸⁷ and later from the Rova of Antananarivo, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron, David Jones and David Griffiths, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.⁸⁸

Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. William Ellis of the London Missionary Society described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population.⁸⁹ The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839.⁹⁰

Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert, a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and an alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.⁹¹

Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, Rasoherina, the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them.⁹² Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II and Queen Ranavalona III in succession.⁹³

Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.⁹⁴ Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.⁹⁵ Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace.⁹⁶ Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city.⁹⁷ In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.⁹⁸

French colonization

Main articles: Malagasy Protectorate and French Madagascar

See also: Madagascar in World War II

Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War.⁹⁹ At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.¹⁰⁰ In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.¹⁰¹

A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.¹⁰² Popular resistance to the French capture of Antananarivo—known as the Menalamba rebellion—broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897.¹⁰³¹⁰⁴ France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria.

The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims.¹⁰⁵

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.¹⁰⁶ Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants¹⁰⁷ or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today.¹⁰⁸ Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo¹⁰⁹ and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum.¹¹⁰ Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills.¹¹¹

Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of the land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression.¹¹²

The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo.¹¹³ Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I.¹¹⁴ In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.¹¹⁵ During the Second World War, the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force.¹¹⁶

The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947.¹¹⁷ This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.¹¹⁸ The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.¹¹⁹

Independent state

Main articles: Malagasy Republic, Democratic Republic of Madagascar, and Third Republic of Madagascar

Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972.¹²⁰

Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava, appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.¹²¹

This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards,¹²² and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy.¹²³

Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010).¹²⁴ The new Madagascar constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade.¹²⁵ Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.¹²⁶

The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.¹²⁷

Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état.¹²⁸ In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.¹²⁹ Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international community deemed fair and transparent.¹³⁰

In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.^131132133 In June 2019 parliamentary elections the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as a strongman.¹³⁴

Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of a famine.¹³⁵

In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history.¹³⁶

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Madagascar and Geology of Madagascar

At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi),¹³⁷ Madagascar is the world's 46th largest country,¹³⁸ the second-largest island country¹³⁹ and the fourth-largest island.¹⁴⁰ The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E.¹⁴¹ Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the northwest. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west.

The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa and South America) during the Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago¹⁴² and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous.¹⁴³ This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest. To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast.¹⁴⁴

Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs: Maromokotro 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the Andringitra Massif, and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi).¹⁴⁵

The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests, spiny forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.¹⁴⁶

Climate

See also: Geography of Madagascar § Climate

The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area's rainforest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island.¹⁴⁷

Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life.¹⁴⁸ In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless¹⁴⁹ and caused more than US$250 million in damage.¹⁵⁰ In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed 121 people,¹⁵¹¹⁵² weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.¹⁵³

A 2022 analysis found that Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change, is going to have to spend 15% of its GDP.¹⁵⁴

Biodiversity and conservation

Main articles: Wildlife of Madagascar, Flora of Madagascar, Fauna of Madagascar, Agriculture in Madagascar, Ecoregions of Madagascar, List of World Heritage Sites in Madagascar, Deforestation in Madagascar, and Illegal logging in Madagascar

As a result of the island's long isolation from neighbouring continents, Madagascar is home to various endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.¹⁵⁵¹⁵⁶ Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic.¹⁵⁷ This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent",¹⁵⁸ and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot.¹⁵⁹ Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries. The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Madagascar lowland forests, Madagascar subhumid forests, Madagascar dry deciduous forests, Madagascar ericoid thickets, Madagascar spiny forests, Madagascar succulent woodlands, and Madagascar mangroves.¹⁶⁰

More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families.¹⁶¹ The family Didiereaceae, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar.¹⁶² Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island.¹⁶³ Three-fourths¹⁶⁴ of Madagascar's 860¹⁶⁵ orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine baobab species.¹⁶⁶ The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.¹⁶⁷ Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine¹⁶⁸¹⁶⁹ and vincristine¹⁷⁰¹⁷¹ are vinca alkaloids,¹⁷²¹⁷³ used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma,¹⁷⁴ leukemia,¹⁷⁵ and other cancers,¹⁷⁶ were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle.¹⁷⁷¹⁷⁸ The traveler's palm, known locally as ravinala¹⁷⁹ and endemic to the eastern rainforests,¹⁸⁰ is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Madagascar Airlines logo.¹⁸¹

Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International.¹⁸² In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012, there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur,¹⁸³ 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.¹⁸⁴ They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.¹⁸⁵

A number of other mammals, including the catlike fossa, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60 percent (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic.¹⁸⁶ The few families and genera of reptiles that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90 percent of these being endemic¹⁸⁷ (including one endemic family).¹⁸⁸ The island is home to two-thirds of the world's chameleon species,¹⁸⁹ including the smallest known.¹⁹⁰

Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders, and dragonflies.¹⁹¹

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.¹⁹² Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest.¹⁹³ This forest loss is largely fueled by tavy ("fat"), a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers.¹⁹⁴ Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (fomba malagasy).¹⁹⁵ As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago.¹⁹⁶ By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests.¹⁹⁷ More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1,000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century.¹⁹⁸ According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent.¹⁹⁹ In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting.²⁰⁰

Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the Asian common toad, a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna."²⁰¹ Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's elephant birds, a family of endemic giant ratites, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food.²⁰² Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.²⁰³ A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. A 2023 study published in Nature Communications found that 120 of the 219 mammal species only found on Madagascar are threatened with extinction.²⁰⁴

In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected natural areas to over 60,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi) or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface. As of 2011, areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (Réserves Naturelles Intégrales), 21 Wildlife Reserves (Réserves Spéciales) and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux).²⁰⁵ In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana. These parks are Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra.²⁰⁶ Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.²⁰⁷

Government

Structure

Main articles: Government of Madagascar and Cabinet of Madagascar

Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-party republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a prime minister, who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers. According to the constitution, executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet,²⁰⁸ the Senate and the National Assembly, although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. The constitution establishes independent executive, legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five-year terms.²⁰⁹

The public directly elects the president and the 151 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms. All 18 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 12 senators elected by local officials and 6 appointed by the president.

At the local level, the island's 23 regions are administered by a governor and regional council. Provinces are further subdivided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance.²¹⁰ The courts, which adhere to civil law, lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system, often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.²¹¹

Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar.²¹² It is located in the highlands region, near the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of Analamanga.²¹³ As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island. In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960. In 2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants.²¹⁴ The next largest cities are Antsirabe (500,000), Toamasina (450,000) and Mahajanga (400,000).²¹⁵

Politics

Main articles: Politics of Madagascar, Foreign relations of Madagascar, and Human rights in Madagascar

Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination. The island's recurrent political crises are often prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local economy, international relations and Malagasy living standards. The eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson.²¹⁶ A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed.²¹⁷ Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence.²¹⁸

Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus. Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina.²¹⁹ Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military.²²⁰ Eleven countries have established embassies in Madagascar, including France, the United Kingdom, the United States, China and India,²²¹ while Madagascar has embassies in sixteen other countries.

Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.²²² Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law. Freedom of association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law, although in practice the denial of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations.²²³²²⁴ Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems. Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau.²²⁵ Accusations of media censorship have risen due to the alleged restrictions on the coverage of government opposition.²²⁶ Some journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news.²²⁷

Military and law enforcement

Main articles: Military of Madagascar and Law enforcement in Madagascar

The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and other firearms.²²⁸ By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30,000.²²⁹ French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's army. Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo. Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897.²³⁰

The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.²³¹ Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.²³²²³³ The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of Defense and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power.²³⁴

The Minister of Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (gendarmerie) and the secret police.²³⁵ The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level. However, in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps.²³⁶ Traditional community tribunals, called dina, are presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state presence is weak. Historically, security has been relatively high across the island.²³⁷ Violent crime rates are low, and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft, although child prostitution, human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing.²³⁸ Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force, producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years.²³⁹

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Regions of Madagascar and Districts of Madagascar

Madagascar is subdivided into 23 regions (faritra).²⁴⁰ The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485 fokontany.²⁴¹

United Nations involvement

Madagascar became a member state of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its independence on 26 June 1960.²⁴³ As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar are deployed in Haiti as part of the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti.²⁴⁴ Starting in 2015, under the direction of and with assistance from the UN, the World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with the two main goals of long-term development and reconstruction efforts, and addressing the food insecurity issues in the southern regions of Madagascar.²⁴⁵ These goals plan to be accomplished by providing meals for specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and by developing national school feeding policies to increase consistency of nourishment throughout the country. Small and local farmers have also been assisted in increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, as well as improving their crop yield in unfavorable weather conditions.²⁴⁶ In 2017, Madagascar signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.²⁴⁷

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Madagascar and Tourism in Madagascar

Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82.²⁴⁸²⁴⁹ Approximately 69 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day.²⁵⁰ According to the United Nations Development Programme, as of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is multidimensionally poor.²⁵¹ During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector.²⁵² The agriculture sector constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP. Madagascar's other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries.²⁵³ The fishing sector represents 800 millions USD or 6% of GNP with 200 000 direct jobs.²⁵⁴

Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species.²⁵⁵ An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.²⁵⁶ However, the sector has been growing steadily for a few years. In 2016, 293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of 20% compared to 2015. For 2017 the country has the goal of reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists.²⁵⁷

The island is still a very poor country in 2018; structural brakes remain in the development of the economy: corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and backwardness of land legislation. The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year;²⁵⁸²⁵⁹ almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017,²⁶⁰ one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1%²⁶¹ with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017.²⁶² The main economic resources of Madagascar are tourism, textiles, agriculture, and mining.

Poverty affects 92% of the population in 2017. The country ranks fourth in the world in terms of chronic malnutrition. Nearly one in two children under the age of five is stunted. In addition, Madagascar is among the five countries where access to water is the most difficult for the population. Twelve million people do not have access to clean water, according to the NGO WaterAid.²⁶³

Natural resources and trade

Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of agricultural and mineral products. Agriculture (including the growing of raffia), mining, fishing and forestry are mainstays of the economy. In 2017 the top exports were vanilla (US$894M), nickel metal (US$414M), cloves (US$288M), knitted sweaters (US$184M) and cobalt (US$143M).²⁶⁴

Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of vanilla, cloves²⁶⁵ and ylang-ylang.²⁶⁶ The island supplies 80% of the world's natural vanilla.²⁶⁷ Other key agricultural resources include coffee, lychees and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and it currently provides half of the world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s.²⁶⁸

Madagascar has one of the world's largest reserves of ilmenite (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel.²⁶⁹ Several major projects are underway in the mining, oil and gas sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining at the Mandena mine by Rio Tinto,²⁷⁰ extraction of nickel by the Ambatovy mine near Moramanga and its processing near Toamasina by Sherritt International,²⁷¹ and the development of the giant onshore heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil.²⁷²

Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009.²⁷³ Most of the country's export revenue is derived from the textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs.²⁷⁴ France is the nation's main trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties.²⁷⁵ High-value cash crops for export such as lychees are more recent growth areas, with 18,000 tons sold abroad in 2023, of which 16,000 tons were exported to Europe.²⁷⁶

The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between USAID and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.²⁷⁷ Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52 percent of GDP. The main sources of Madagascar's imports include China,²⁷⁸ France, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong.²⁷⁹

Infrastructure and media

Main articles: Transport in Madagascar, Telecommunications in Madagascar, and List of newspapers in Madagascar

In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617 km (4,730 mi) of paved roads, 854 km (530 mi) of railways and 432 km (270 mi) of navigable waterways.²⁸⁰ The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the rainy season. Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district.²⁸¹ Construction of the Antananarivo–Toamasina toll highway, the country's first toll highway, began in December 2022. The approximately US$1,000,000,000 infrastructure project, which will connect Madagascar's capital to its largest seaport, is expected to take four years to complete.²⁸² Another project meant to create 348 kilometres (216 mi) of roads and create better connections costs €235.5 million. This includes a €116 million grant from the European Union, a €110 million loan from the European Investment Bank, and €4.8 million in finance from the Republic of Madagascar.²⁸³ Since 2016, €100.4 million has been paid to the Republic of Madagascar through this project.²⁸⁴²⁸⁵

There are several rail lines in Madagascar. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most important seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used because of their remoteness.²⁸⁶ Madagascar's government hopes to expand the ports of Antsiranana in the north and Taolagnaro in the south, connecting them to improved road networks, since many imports are every day necessities and Madagascar also relies on export money.^287288289 The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the company's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038.²⁹⁰ Madagascar Airlines services the island's many small regional airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts.²⁹¹

Running water and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider, Jirama, which is unable to service the entire population. As of 2009, only 6.8 percent of Madagascar's fokontany had access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5 percent had access to its electricity services.²⁹² Fifty-six percent of Madagascar's power is provided by hydroelectric power plants, with the remaining 44% provided by diesel engine generators.²⁹³ Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island. Approximately 30% of the districts are able to access the nations' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines.²⁹⁴ The World Bank estimates that 17 million people in Madagascar's rural areas live more than two kilometres away from an all-season road.²⁹⁵ In Madagascar, 11% of the rural population has access to power.²⁹⁶²⁹⁷

Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international, national, and local news. Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting.²⁹⁸ In addition to the state television channel, a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar. Several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves, including the media groups MBS (owned by Ravalomanana) and Viva (owned by Rajoelina),²⁹⁹ contributing to political polarization in reporting.

The media have historically come under varying degrees of pressure to censor their criticism of the government. Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed, and media outlets are periodically forced to close.³⁰⁰ Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 because of the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism.³⁰¹ Access to the internet has grown dramatically in the 21st century; in December 2011, an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessed the internet from home or in one of the nation's many internet cafés .³⁰² By January 2022, 22.3 percent of the population (6.43 million people) had internet access, mostly through mobile phones.³⁰³

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Madagascar and List of cities in Madagascar

Agriculture has long influenced settlement on the island. Almost 60% of the nation's population live in rural areas.³⁰⁴

In 2024, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 32 million, up from 2.2 million in 1900.³⁰⁵³⁰⁶ The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.4% in 2024.³⁰⁷

Approximately 39.3 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 57.3 percent are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form 3.4 percent of the total population.³⁰⁸ Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.³⁰⁹

Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnic groups of Madagascar

The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90 percent of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups.³¹⁰ Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian and East African genes,^311312313 although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab, Indian, or European ancestry.³¹⁴

Southeast Asian features – specifically from the southern part of Borneo – are most predominant among the Merina of the central highlands,³¹⁵ who form the largest Malagasy ethnic subgroup at approximately 26 percent of the population, while certain communities among the western coastal peoples (collectively called côtiers) have relatively stronger East African features. The largest coastal ethnic subgroups are the Betsimisaraka (14.9 percent) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (6 percent each).³¹⁶ Peoples along the east and southeastern coasts often have a roughly equal blend of Austronesian and Bantu ancestry; coastal peoples also usually show the largest genetic influence from the centuries of Arab, Somali, Gujarati, and Tamil traders and merchants of the area, compared to the inland highlander peoples.

Chinese, Indian and Comoran minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily French) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.³¹⁷ By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.³¹⁸ The number of Europeans has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958³¹⁹ to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 Indians, and 9,000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.³²⁰

Largest cities

Languages

Main articles: Malagasy language and Languages of Madagascar

The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,³²² can be clustered under 3 subgroups:Central-Eastern Malagasic, Northern Malagasic and Southern Malagasic.

Tree list of Malagasy dialects

• Proto-Malagasy
  • Central-Eastern Malagasic
    • Plateaux Malagasy
      • Merina-Vakinankaratra
        • Merina
          • Standard Malagasy
          • Inner City Merina
        • Vakinankaratra
      • Betsileo
      • Bezanozano
      • Sihanaka
      • Antemoro-Antefasy
        • Antemoro
        • Antefasy
          • Zafisoro
      • Antambahoaka
      • Tanala
    • Sahafatra -Antesaka
    • Southern Betsimisaraka
  • Southern Malagasic
    • Vezo-Sakalava
      • Southern Sakalava
      • Vezo
      • Masikoro
    • Tandroy
      • Karimbola
    • Mahafaly
    • Bara
    • Antanosy
  • Northern Malagasic
    • Northern Sakalava
      • Kibushi
        • Kibushi Kimaore
        • Kibushi Kiantalaotsy
    • Sakalava Anjoaty
    • Antakarana
    • Tsimihety
    • Northern Betsimisaraka

The Malagasy language derives from the Southeast Barito languages, with the Ma'anyan language being its closest relative, incorporating numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords.³²³³²⁴

French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.³²⁵

Among the upper class in large cities, French is spoken as a native language.³²⁶

No official languages were mentioned in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.³²⁷

The Constitution of 2007 recognised three official languages, Malagasy, French, and English.³²⁸ A fourth Constitution, adopted in 2010 following a referendum,³²⁹ recognised only Malagasy and French.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Madagascar

Christianity is the most widely professed religion in Madagascar. According to the most recent national census completed in 1993, a majority of the population (52 percent) adhered to indigenous beliefs, with Christianity being the largest single religion at 41 percent, followed by Islam at 7 percent. However, according to the Pew Research Center in 2020, 85% of the population identified as Christian, while just 4.5% exclusively practiced folk religions; Protestants comprise a plurality of Christians, followed by Catholics.³³⁰ In contrast, a 2020 study conducted by the Association of Religion Data Archives found 58.1% of the population was Christian, 2.1% Muslim, 39.2% practiced traditional faiths, and 0.6% was nonreligious or adhered to other faiths.³³¹³³²

The inconsistency in religious data reflects the common practice of alternating between religious identities or syncretizing different faith traditions. Christians integrate and combine their religious beliefs with the deeply rooted practice of honoring ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a famadihana reburial.³³³ Christianity is predominant in the highlands.³³⁴ The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican) and has been influential in Malagasy politics.³³⁵

The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the famadihana, whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present.³³⁶ Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to fady, taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called Zanahary or Andriamanitra.³³⁷

Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words, and the adoption of Islamic astrology, would spread across the island, Islam took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities. In 2020, Muslims constituted 2% of the population of Madagascar.³³⁸³³⁹ They are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana. Muslims are divided between ethnic Malagasy and Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans.

Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi at home, reflecting the faiths concentration among those of Indian ancestry.³⁴⁰

Rabbinic Judaism emerged on the island in the 21st century, as the common belief in a myth of Jewish origin for the Malagasy peoples inspired Messianic Jews in Antananarivo to begin researching Judaism and studying the Torah. In 2016, 121 members of the Malagasy Jewish community were formally converted to Orthodox Judaism.³⁴¹

Health

Main article: Healthcare in Madagascar

Medical centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, especially in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers.³⁴² In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low. In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57 dentists for a population of 22 million. Fifteen percent of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. Approximately 70 percent of spending on health was contributed by the government, while 30 percent originated with international donors and other private sources.³⁴³ The government provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands.³⁴⁴

Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past twenty years. Child immunizations against such diseases as hepatitis B, diphtheria, and measles increased an average of 60 percent in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8 percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a contributing factor to rapid population growth.³⁴⁵ In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births,³⁴⁶ with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births.³⁴⁷ Schistosomiasis, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although infection rates of AIDS remain low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at 0.2 percent of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part because of the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa.³⁴⁸ Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women.³⁴⁹

Madagascar had outbreaks of the bubonic plague and pneumonic plague in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).³⁵⁰ In 2019, Madagascar had a measles outbreak, resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths. In 2020, Madagascar was also affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018.³⁵¹ According to the United Nations, more than one million people in southern Madagascar are struggling to get enough to eat,³⁵² due to what could become the first famine caused by climate change.³⁵³

Education

Main article: Education in Madagascar

Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders.³⁵⁴ The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society (LMS). The LMS was invited by King Radama I to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835,³⁵⁵ but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death.

By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power.³⁵⁶ Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of instruction, and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy.³⁵⁷

This policy, known as malgachization, coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure.³⁵⁸

Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.³⁵⁹ The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level.³⁶⁰ During Ravalomanana's first term, thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees were eliminated, and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.³⁶¹

Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per fokontany and one lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers.³⁶² The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa. These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges.³⁶³

As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006. However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout.³⁶⁴ Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom.³⁶⁵ Public expenditure on education was 2.8 percent of GDP in 2014. The literacy rate is estimated at 64.7%.³⁶⁶

Culture

Main article: Culture of Madagascar

Each of the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana (solidarity), vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and hasina, a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.³⁶⁷³⁶⁸

Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity, and roles within the community.³⁶⁹ Malagasy people traditionally consult Mpanandro ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or famadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ombiasy (from olona-be-hasina, "man of much virtue") of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Somali settlers.³⁷⁰

The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar, the valiha, is a bamboo tube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from southern Borneo, and is very similar in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines today.³⁷¹ Traditional houses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar.³⁷² Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living.³⁷³ The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the woven lamba, has evolved into a varied and refined art.³⁷⁴

The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine, in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes.³⁷⁵ African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth, traditions originating on the African mainland. Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.³⁷⁶

Media

Main article: Media of Madagascar

Arts

Main article: Music of Madagascar

A wide variety of oral and written literature has developed in Madagascar. One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is its oratory, as expressed in the forms of hainteny (poetry), kabary (public discourse) and ohabolana (proverbs).³⁷⁷³⁷⁸ An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities.³⁷⁹ This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, who is considered Africa's first modern poet,³⁸⁰ and Elie Rajaonarison, an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry.³⁸¹ Madagascar has also developed a rich musical heritage, embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal salegy or highland hiragasy that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.³⁸² Madagascar also has a growing culture of classical music fostered through youth academies, organizations and orchestras that promote youth involvement in classical music.

The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of raffia and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats.³⁸³ Wood carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods, aloalo funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market.³⁸⁴ The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.³⁸⁵

Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists.³⁸⁶ Embroidery and drawn thread work are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets.³⁸⁷ Malagasy artists such as Madame Zo have incorporated textile traditions of Madagascar directly into their work.³⁸⁸ A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.³⁸⁹

Sport

A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. Moraingy, a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate.³⁹⁰ The wrestling of zebu cattle, which is named savika or tolon-omby, is also practiced in many regions.³⁹¹ In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Among the most emblematic is fanorona, a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially the result of the obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities.³⁹²

Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. Rugby union is considered the national sport of Madagascar.³⁹³ Soccer is also popular. Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque, a French game similar to lawn bowling, which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands.³⁹⁴ School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball and women's tennis. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964, and has also competed in the African Games.³⁹⁵ Scouting is represented in Madagascar by its own local federation of three scouting clubs. Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.³⁹⁶

Because of its advanced sports facilities, Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa's top international basketball events, including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship,³⁹⁷ the 2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women,³⁹⁸ the 2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship,³⁹⁹ the 2013 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship,⁴⁰⁰ and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women.⁴⁰¹ Madagascar's national 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the 2019 African Games.

Cuisine

Main article: Malagasy cuisine

Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences of Southeast Asian, African, Oceania, Indian, Chinese, and European culinary traditions. The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple, traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers, to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island's 19th-century monarchs. Throughout almost the entire island, the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a base of rice (vary) served with an accompaniment (laoka). The many varieties of laoka may be vegetarian or include animal proteins, and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger, onion, garlic, tomato, vanilla, coconut milk, salt, curry powder, green peppercorns or, less commonly, other spices or herbs. In parts of the arid south and west, pastoral families may replace rice with maize, cassava, or curds made from fermented zebu milk. A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters as well as other street foods are available across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climate fruits. Locally produced beverages include fruit juices, coffee, herbal teas and teas, and alcoholic drinks such as rum, wine, and beer.⁴⁰² Three Horses Beer is the most popular beer on the island⁴⁰³ and is considered emblematic of Madagascar.⁴⁰⁴

See also

• Madagascar portal

• Index of Madagascar-related articles
• Outline of Madagascar

Notes

Bibliography

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External links

• Country Profile Archived 29 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine from BBC News
• Madagascar Archived 14 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Madagascar from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Wikimedia Atlas of Madagascar
• Key Development Forecasts for Madagascar Archived 19 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine from International Futures
• Geographic data related to Madagascar at OpenStreetMap
• Map of Madagascar, 1666 Archived 3 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, (in French). Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel

20°S 47°E / 20°S 47°E / -20; 47

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