• Images
• Videos
• Documents
• Books
• Articles

List of isotopes

• The isotopic composition refers to that in air.

Notable isotopes

Krypton-81

Krypton-81 is useful in determining how old the water beneath the ground is.³² Radioactive krypton-81 is the product of spallation reactions with cosmic rays striking gases present in the Earth atmosphere, along with the six stable or nearly stable krypton isotopes.³³ Krypton-81 has a half-life of about 229,000 years.

Krypton-81 is used for dating ancient (50,000- to 800,000-year-old) groundwater and to determine their residence time in deep aquifers. One of the main technical limitations of the method is that it requires the sampling of very large volumes of water: several hundred liters or a few cubic meters of water. This is particularly challenging for dating pore water in deep clay aquitards with very low hydraulic conductivity.³⁴

Krypton-85

Main article: Krypton-85

Krypton-85 has a half-life of about 10.75 years. This isotope is produced by the nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear weapons testing and in nuclear reactors, as well as by cosmic rays. An important goal of the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963 was to eliminate the release of such radioisotopes into the atmosphere, and since 1963 much of that krypton-85 has had time to decay. However, it is almost inevitable that krypton-85 is released during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors.³⁵

Atmospheric concentration

See also: Nuclear reprocessing

The atmospheric concentration of krypton-85 around the North Pole is about 30 percent higher than that at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station because nearly all of the world's nuclear reactors and all of its major nuclear reprocessing plants are located in the northern hemisphere, and also well-north of the equator.³⁶ To be more specific, those nuclear reprocessing plants with significant capacities are located in the United States, the United Kingdom, the French Republic, the Russian Federation, Mainland China (PRC), Japan, India, and Pakistan.

Krypton-86

Krypton-86 was formerly used to define the meter from 1960 until 1983, when the definition of the meter was based on the wavelength of the 606 nm (orange) spectral line of a krypton-86 atom.³⁷

Others

All other radioisotopes of krypton have half-lives of less than one day, except for krypton-79, a positron emitter with a half-life of about 35.0 hours.

Sources

• Isotope masses from:
  • Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
• Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
  • de Laeter, John Robert; Böhlke, John Karl; De Bièvre, Paul; Hidaka, Hiroshi; Peiser, H. Steffen; Rosman, Kevin J. R.; Taylor, Philip D. P. (2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 75 (6): 683–800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
  • Wieser, Michael E. (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 78 (11): 2051–2066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051.
• "News & Notices: Standard Atomic Weights Revised". International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 19 October 2005.
• Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources.
  • Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
  • National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.x database". Brookhaven National Laboratory.
  • Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.

External links

• Brookhaven National Laboratory: Krypton-101 information Archived 2017-10-18 at the Wayback Machine

References

1. mKr – Excited nuclear isomer. /wiki/Nuclear_isomer ↩

2. Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

3. ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. ↩

4. # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS). ↩

5. Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf ↩

6. Bold half-life – nearly stable, half-life longer than age of universe. /wiki/Age_of_universe ↩

7. # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN). ↩

8. Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf ↩

9. Modes of decay: n:Neutron emission /wiki/Neutron_emission ↩

10. Bold italics symbol as daughter – Daughter product is nearly stable. ↩

11. Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable. ↩

12. Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf ↩

13. ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments. ↩

14. # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN). ↩

15. Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf ↩

16. Primordial radionuclide /wiki/Primordial_nuclide ↩

17. Patrignani, C.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2016). "Review of Particle Physics". Chinese Physics C. 40 (10): 100001. Bibcode:2016ChPhC..40j0001P. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/40/10/100001. See p. 768 /wiki/Particle_Data_Group ↩

18. Used to date groundwater /wiki/Groundwater ↩

19. Lu, Zheng-Tian (1 March 2013). "What trapped atoms reveal about global groundwater". Physics Today. 66 (3): 74–75. Bibcode:2013PhT....66c..74L. doi:10.1063/PT.3.1926. Retrieved 29 June 2024. https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/66/3/74/414350/What-trapped-atoms-reveal-about-global ↩

20. Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩

21. Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩

22. Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩

23. Lu, Zheng-Tian (1 March 2013). "What trapped atoms reveal about global groundwater". Physics Today. 66 (3): 74–75. Bibcode:2013PhT....66c..74L. doi:10.1063/PT.3.1926. Retrieved 29 June 2024. https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/66/3/74/414350/What-trapped-atoms-reveal-about-global ↩

24. Formerly used to define the meter /wiki/History_of_the_metre#Krypton_standard ↩

25. Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩

26. Believed to decay by β−β− to 86Sr ↩

27. Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩

28. Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩

29. Smith, Matthew B.; Murböck, Tobias; Dunling, Eleanor; Jacobs, Andrew; Kootte, Brian; Lan, Yang; Leistenschneider, Erich; Lunney, David; Lykiardopoulou, Eleni Marina; Mukul, Ish; Paul, Stefan F.; Reiter, Moritz P.; Will, Christian; Dilling, Jens; Kwiatkowski, Anna A. (2020). "High-precision mass measurement of neutron-rich 96Kr". Hyperfine Interactions. 241 (1): 59. Bibcode:2020HyInt.241...59S. doi:10.1007/s10751-020-01722-2. S2CID 220512482. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10751-020-01722-2 ↩

30. Sumikama, T.; et al. (2021). "Observation of new neutron-rich isotopes in the vicinity of Zr110". Physical Review C. 103 (1): 014614. Bibcode:2021PhRvC.103a4614S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.103.014614. hdl:10261/260248. S2CID 234019083. https://journals.aps.org/prc/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevC.103.014614 ↩

31. Shimizu, Y.; Kubo, T.; Sumikama, T.; Fukuda, N.; Takeda, H.; Suzuki, H.; Ahn, D. S.; Inabe, N.; Kusaka, K.; Ohtake, M.; Yanagisawa, Y.; Yoshida, K.; Ichikawa, Y.; Isobe, T.; Otsu, H.; Sato, H.; Sonoda, T.; Murai, D.; Iwasa, N.; Imai, N.; Hirayama, Y.; Jeong, S. C.; Kimura, S.; Miyatake, H.; Mukai, M.; Kim, D. G.; Kim, E.; Yagi, A. (8 April 2024). "Production of new neutron-rich isotopes near the N = 60 isotones Ge 92 and As 93 by in-flight fission of a 345 MeV/nucleon U 238 beam". Physical Review C. 109 (4): 044313. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.109.044313. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

32. Le-Yi Tu, Guo-Min Yang, Cun-Feng Cheng, Gu-Liang Liu, Xiang-Yang Zhang, and Shui-Ming Hu (2014). "Analysis of Krypton-85 and Krypton-81 in a Few Liters of Air". Analytical Chemistry. 86 (8): 4002–4007.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) /wiki/Analytical_Chemistry ↩

33. Leya, I.; Gilabert, E.; Lavielle, B.; Wiechert, U.; Wieler, W. (2004). "Production rates for cosmogenic krypton and argon isotopes in H-chondrites with known 36Cl-36Ar ages" (PDF). Antarctic Meteorite Research. 17: 185–199. Bibcode:2004AMR....17..185L. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51485498.pdf ↩

34. N. Thonnard; L. D. MeKay; T. C. Labotka (2001). Development of Laser-Based Resonance Ionization Techniques for 81-Kr and 85-Kr Measurements in the Geosciences (PDF) (Report). University of Tennessee, Institute for Rare Isotope Measurements. pp. 4–7. doi:10.2172/809813. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc737461/m2/1/high_res_d/809813.pdf ↩

35. "Environmental Consequences Of Atmospheric Krypton-85" (PDF). p. 8. Retrieved 2024-12-08. https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/11/569/11569296.pdf ↩

36. "Resources on Isotopes". U.S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 2001-09-24. Retrieved 2007-03-20. https://web.archive.org/web/20010924204348/http://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/period/kr_iig.html ↩

37. Baird, K. M.; Howlett, L. E. (1963). "The International Length Standard". Applied Optics. 2 (5): 455–463. Bibcode:1963ApOpt...2..455B. doi:10.1364/AO.2.000455. /wiki/Applied_Optics ↩