Kosovo, officially the Republic of Kosovo, is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, bordered by Albania, Montenegro, Serbia, and North Macedonia. Its capital and largest city is Pristina. Kosovo has a rich history, forming the core of the ancient Dardani kingdom and later part of the Byzantine Empire and Serbian medieval state. After centuries under the Ottoman Empire, Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, recognized by over 108 UN member states, though Serbia disputes this. Kosovo has an upper-middle-income economy and applied for EU membership in 2022, marking its ongoing efforts for international integration.
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nytimes.comEtymology
Main article: Names of Kosovo
The name Kosovo is of South Slavic origin. Kosovo (Косово) is the Serbian neuter possessive adjective of kos (кос), 'blackbird',89 an ellipsis for Kosovo Polje, 'Blackbird Field', the name of a karst field situated in the eastern half of today's Kosovo and the site of the 1389 Battle of Kosovo Field.10 The name of the karst field was for the first time applied to a wider area when the Ottoman Vilayet of Kosovo was created in 1877.
The entire territory that corresponds to today's country is commonly referred to in English simply as Kosovo and in Albanian as Kosova (definite form) or Kosovë (indefinite form, pronounced [kɔˈsɔvə]). In Serbia, a formal distinction is made between the eastern and western areas of the country; the term Kosovo (Косово) is used for the eastern part of Kosovo centred on the historical Kosovo Field, while the western part of the territory of Kosovo is called Metohija (Albanian: Dukagjin). Thus, in Serbian the entire area of Kosovo is referred to as Kosovo and Metohija.11
Dukagjini or Dukagjini plateau (Albanian: 'Rrafshi i Dukagjinit') is an alternative name for Western Kosovo, having been in use since the 15th–16th century as part of the Sanjak of Dukakin with its capital Peja, and is named after the medieval Albanian Dukagjini family.12
Modern usage
Some Albanians also prefer to refer to Kosovo as Dardania, the name of an ancient kingdom and later Roman province, which covered the territory of modern-day Kosovo. The name is derived from the ancient tribe of the Dardani, which is considered be related to the Proto-Albanian term dardā, which means "pear" (Modern Albanian: dardhë).1314 The former Kosovo President Ibrahim Rugova had been an enthusiastic backer of a "Dardanian" identity, and the Kosovar presidential flag and seal refer to this national identity. However, the name "Kosova" remains more widely used among the Albanian population. The flag of Dardania remains in use as the official Presidential seal and standard and is heavily featured in the institution of the presidency of the country.
The official conventional long name, as defined by the constitution, is Republic of Kosovo.15 Additionally, as a result of an arrangement agreed between Pristina and Belgrade in talks mediated by the European Union, Kosovo has participated in some international forums and organisations under the title "Kosovo*" with a footnote stating, "This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSC 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence". This arrangement, which has been dubbed the "asterisk agreement", was agreed in an 11-point arrangement on 24 February 2012.16
History
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Kosovo history.
Main article: History of Kosovo
Ancient history
See also: Archaeology of Kosovo and Copper, Bronze and Iron Age sites in Kosovo
Further information: Illyrians and Dardania
The strategic position including the abundant natural resources were favourable for the development of human settlements in Kosovo, as is highlighted by the hundreds of archaeological sites identified throughout its territory.17
Since 2000, the increase in archaeological expeditions has revealed many, previously unknown sites. The earliest documented traces in Kosovo are associated to the Stone Age; namely, indications that cave dwellings might have existed, such as Radivojce Cave near the source of the Drin River, Grnčar Cave in Viti municipality and the Dema and Karamakaz Caves in the municipality of Peja.
The earliest archaeological evidence of organised settlement, which have been found in Kosovo, belong to the Neolithic Starčevo and Vinča cultures.18 Vlashnjë and Runik are important sites of the Neolithic era with the rock art paintings at Mrrizi i Kobajës near Vlashnjë being the first find of prehistoric art in Kosovo.19 Amongst the finds of excavations in Neolithic Runik is a baked-clay ocarina, which is the first musical instrument recorded in Kosovo.20
The first archaeological expedition in Kosovo was organised by the Austro-Hungarian army during World War I in the Illyrian tumuli burial grounds of Nepërbishti within the district of Prizren.21
The beginning of the Bronze Age coincides with the presence of tumuli burial grounds in western Kosovo, like the site of Romajë.22
The Dardani were the most important Paleo-Balkan tribe in the region of Kosovo. A wide area which consists of Kosovo, parts of Northern Macedonia and eastern Serbia was named Dardania after them in classical antiquity, reaching to the Thraco-Illyrian contact zone in the east. In archaeological research, Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania, while Thracian names are mostly found in eastern Dardania.
Thracian names are absent in western Dardania, while some Illyrian names appear in the eastern parts. Thus, their identification as either an Illyrian or Thracian tribe has been a subject of debate, the ethnolinguistic relationship between the two groups being largely uncertain and debated itself as well. The correspondence of Illyrian names, including those of the ruling elite, in Dardania with those of the southern Illyrians suggests a thracianisation of parts of Dardania.23 The Dardani retained an individuality and continued to maintain social independence after Roman conquest, playing an important role in the formation of new groupings in the Roman era.24
Roman period
See also: Roman heritage in Kosovo
During Roman rule, Kosovo was part of two provinces, with its western part being part of Praevalitana, and the vast majority of its modern territory belonging to Dardania. Praevalitana and the rest of Illyria was conquered by the Roman Republic in 168 BC. On the other hand, Dardania maintained its independence until the year 28 BC, when the Romans, under Augustus, annexed it into their Republic.2526 Dardania eventually became a part of the Moesia province.27 During the reign of Diocletian, Dardania became a full Roman province and the entirety of Kosovo's modern territory became a part of the Diocese of Moesia, and then during the second half of the 4th century, it became part of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum.28: 548
During Roman rule, a series of settlements developed in the area, mainly close to mines and to the major roads. The most important of the settlements was Ulpiana,29 which is located near modern-day Gračanica. It was established in the 1st century AD, possibly developing from a concentrated Dardanian oppidum, and then was upgraded to the status of a Roman municipium at the beginning of the 2nd century during the rule of Trajan.3031 Ulpiana became especially important during the rule of Justinian I, after the Emperor rebuilt the city after it had been destroyed by an earthquake and renamed it to Iustinianna Secunda.3233
Other important towns that developed in the area during Roman rule were Vendenis, located in modern-day Podujevë; Viciano, possibly near Vushtrri; and Municipium Dardanorum, an important mining town in Leposavić. Other archeological sites include Çifllak in Western Kosovo, Dresnik in Klina, Pestova in Vushtrri, Vërban in Klokot, Poslishte between Vërmica and Prizren, Paldenica near Hani i Elezit, as well as Nerodimë e Poshtme and Nikadin near Ferizaj. The one thing all the settlements have in common is that they are located either near roads, such as Via Lissus-Naissus, or near the mines of North Kosovo and eastern Kosovo. Most of the settlements are archaeological sites that have been discovered recently and are being excavated.
It is also known that the region was Christianised during Roman rule, though little is known regarding Christianity in the Balkans in the three first centuries AD.34 The first clear mention of Christians in literature is the case of Bishop Dacus of Macedonia, from Dardania, who was present at the First Council of Nicaea (325).35 It is also known that Dardania had a Diocese in the 4th century, and its seat was placed in Ulpiana, which remained the episcopal centre of Dardania until the establishment of Justiniana Prima in 535 AD.3637 The first known bishop of Ulpiana is Machedonius, who was a member of the council of Serdika. Other known bishops were Paulus (synod of Constantinople in 553 AD), and Gregentius, who was sent by Justin I to Ethiopia and Yemen to ease problems among different Christian groups there.38
Middle Ages
In the next centuries, Kosovo was a frontier province of the Roman, and later of the Byzantine Empire, and as a result it changed hands frequently. The region was exposed to an increasing number of raids from the 4th century CE onward, culminating with the Slavic migrations of the 6th and 7th centuries. Toponymic evidence suggests that Albanian was probably spoken in Kosovo prior to the Slavic settlement of the region.3940 The overwhelming presence of towns and municipalities in Kosovo with Slavic in their toponymy suggests that the Slavic migrations either assimilated or drove out population groups already living in Kosovo.41
Toponyms suggest that the Slav presence in Kosovo and southernmost part of the Morava valley may have been quite weak in the first one or two centuries of Slav settlement as, unlike in some other areas of the Balkans, (such as Bosnia, Northern Serbia and the Dalmatian hinterlands where old toponyms were completely swept aside), the names of some important old towns and toponyms of mountains survived in the region including Niš, Shkup, Sharr, Lipjan and Shtip. A pre-Slavic population in this territory served as a border zone between the early Serbs and Bulgarians which created a division between the Serbo-Croat language and the Bulgarian-Macedonian one.42 A transitional dialect, the Torlak dialect, is considered to have developed later when the Serbo-Croat speakers expanded into the region in the late medieval period and came in contact with Bulgarian speakers.43 The Torlak dialect is also considered to have Albanian and Romanian influence.44 Expansion of Slavs into the region is thought to have led to the spread of the Vlachs (Romanian and Aromanian) into other areas of the Balkans.45 Only in the ninth century can the expansion of a strong Slav (or quasi-Slav) power into this region be observed. The Bulgarians that pushed westwards across modern Macedonia and eastern Serbia, until by the 850's had taken over Kosovo and were pressing on the border of Serbian Principality. At the same time, southern and central Albania became settled by Bulgarian speakers too and Serb tribes were expanding into Northern Albania.46
The First Bulgarian Empire acquired Kosovo by the mid-9th century, but Byzantine control was restored by the late 10th century. In 1072, the leaders of the Bulgarian Uprising of Georgi Voiteh traveled from their centre in Skopje to Prizren and held a meeting in which they invited Mihailo Vojislavljević of Duklja to send them assistance. Mihailo sent his son, Constantine Bodin with 300 of his soldiers. After they met, the Bulgarian magnates proclaimed him "Emperor of the Bulgarians".47 Demetrios Chomatenos is the last Byzantine archbishop of Ohrid to include Prizren in his jurisdiction until 1219.48 Stefan Nemanja had seized the area along the White Drin in 1185 to 1195 and the ecclesiastical split of Prizren from the Patriarchate in 1219 was the final act of establishing Nemanjić rule. Konstantin Jireček concluded, from the correspondence of archbishop Demetrios of Ohrid from 1216 to 1236, that Dardania was increasingly populated by Albanians and the expansion started from Gjakova and Prizren area, prior to the Slavic expansion.49
During the 13th and 14th centuries, Kosovo was a political, cultural and religious centre of the Serbian Kingdom.50 In the late 13th century, the seat of the Serbian Archbishopric was moved to Peja, and rulers centred themselves between Prizren and Skopje,51 during which time thousands of Christian monasteries and feudal-style forts and castles were erected,52 with Stefan Dušan using Prizren Fortress as one of his temporary courts for a time. When the Serbian Empire fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities in 1371, Kosovo became the hereditary land of the House of Branković.5354 During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, parts of Kosovo, the easternmost area located near Pristina, were part of the Principality of Dukagjini, which was later incorporated into an anti-Ottoman federation of all Albanian principalities, the League of Lezhë.55
In 1330, Serbian king Stefan Dečanski explicitly mentioned the presence of Albanians and the Albanian names of villages in Kosovo, in particular in the districts of Prizren and that of Skopje. A chrisobull of the Serbian Tsar Stefan Dušan that was given to the Monastery of Saint Mihail and Gavril in Prizren between the years of 1348-1353 states the presence of Albanians in the vicinity of Prizren, the Dukagjin Plain and in the villages of Drenica. Within this chrisobull, nine Albanian stock-breeding villages within the vicinity of Prizren are mentioned explicitly; entire Albanian villages were gifted by Serbian kings, particularly Stefan Dušan as presents to Serb monasteries within Prizren, Deçan and Tetova.56 In one of Nemanjas charter, 170 Vlachs are mentioned in the area of Prizren. When Dečanski founded his monastery of Dečani in 1330, he referred to ‘villages and katuns of Vlachs and Albanians’ in the area of the white Drin.57 Vlachs and Albanians had to carry salt and provide serf labour for the monastery.58
Medieval Monuments in Kosovo is a combined UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of four Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries in Deçan, Peja, Prizren and Gračanica. The constructions were founded by members of the Nemanjić dynasty, a prominent dynasty of mediaeval Serbia.59
Ottoman rule
Main article: History of Ottoman Kosovo
See also: Battle of Kosovo, Vilayet of Kosovo, and Great Migrations of the Serbs
In 1389, as the Ottoman Empire expanded northwards through the Balkans, Ottoman forces under Sultan Murad I met with a Christian coalition led by Moravian Serbia under Prince Lazar in the Battle of Kosovo. Both sides suffered heavy losses and the battle was a stalemate and it was even reported as a Christian victory at first, but Serbian manpower was depleted and de facto Serbian rulers could not raise another equal force to the Ottoman army.60616263
Different parts of Kosovo were ruled directly or indirectly by the Ottomans in this early period. The medieval town of Novo Brdo was under Lazar's son, Stefan who became a loyal Ottoman vassal and instigated the downfall of Vuk Branković who eventually joined the Hungarian anti-Ottoman coalition and was defeated in 1395–96. A small part of Vuk's land with the villages of Pristina and Vushtrri was given to his sons to hold as Ottoman vassals for a brief period.64
During this period, Islam was introduced to the region. The Ottomans appeared to have a more deliberate approach to converting the Roman Catholic population who were mostly Albanians (and were most of the converts to Islam) in comparison with the mostly Serbian adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy, as they viewed the former less favourably due to its allegiance to Rome, a competing regional power.65
In 1690, Kosovo Albanian Pjeter Bogdani led a revolt against the Ottoman Empire in Kosovo.66 Following the Great Turkish War, a number of Serbs migrated northwards to Habsburg territories near the Danube and Sava rivers led by Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III Crnojević.67 There were also some Christian and Muslim Albanians who departed.68 Afterwards, the Ottomans encouraged the migration of Albanians into Kosovo. The larger, eastern part of Kosovo remained overwhelmingly Serb Orthodox, with a Catholic Albanian, and later Muslim Albanian, presence growing from the west by the 16th century.69
Rise of nationalism
In the 19th century, there was an awakening of ethnic nationalism throughout the Balkans. The underlying ethnic tensions became part of a broader struggle of Christian Serbs against Muslim Albanians.70 The ethnic Albanian nationalism movement was centred in Kosovo. In 1878 the League of Prizren (Lidhja e Prizrenit) was formed, a political organisation that sought to unify all the Albanians of the Ottoman Empire in a common struggle for autonomy and greater cultural rights,71 although they generally desired the continuation of the Ottoman Empire.72 The League was dis-established in 1881 but enabled the awakening of a national identity among Albanians,73 whose ambitions competed with those of the Serbs, the Kingdom of Serbia wishing to incorporate this land that had formerly been within its empire.
The modern Albanian-Serbian conflict has its roots in the expulsion of the Albanians in 1877–1878 from areas that became incorporated into the Principality of Serbia.7475 During and after the Serbian–Ottoman War of 1876–78, between 30,000 and 70,000 Muslims, mostly Albanians, were expelled by the Serb army from the Sanjak of Niš and fled to the Kosovo Vilayet.767778798081 According to Austrian data, by the 1890s Kosovo was 70% Muslim (nearly entirely of Albanian descent) and less than 30% non-Muslim (primarily Serbs).82 In May 1901, Albanians pillaged and partially burned the cities of Novi Pazar, Sjenica and Pristina, and killed many Serbs near Pristina and in Kolašin (now North Kosovo).8384
In the spring of 1912, Albanians under the lead of Hasan Prishtina revolted against the Ottoman Empire. The rebels were joined by a wave of Albanians in the Ottoman army ranks, who deserted the army, refusing to fight their own kin. The rebels defeated the Ottomans and the latter were forced to accept all fourteen demands of the rebels, which foresaw an effective autonomy for the Albanians living in the Empire.85 However, this autonomy never materialised, and the revolt created serious weaknesses in the Ottoman ranks, luring Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece into declaring war on the Ottoman Empire and starting the First Balkan War.
After the Ottomans' defeat in the First Balkan War, the 1913 Treaty of London was signed with Metohija ceded to the Kingdom of Montenegro and eastern Kosovo ceded to the Kingdom of Serbia.86 During the Balkan Wars, over 100,000 Albanians left Kosovo and about 50,000 were killed in the massacres that accompanied the war.8788 Soon, there were concerted Serbian colonisation efforts in Kosovo during various periods between Serbia's 1912 takeover of the province and World War II, causing the population of Serbs in Kosovo to grow by about 58,000 in this period.8990
Serbian authorities promoted creating new Serb settlements in Kosovo as well as the assimilation of Albanians into Serbian society, causing a mass exodus of Albanians from Kosovo.91 The figures of Albanians forcefully expelled from Kosovo range between 60,000 and 239,807, while Malcolm mentions 100,000–120,000. In combination with the politics of extermination and expulsion, there was also a process of assimilation through religious conversion of Albanian Muslims and Albanian Catholics into the Serbian Orthodox religion which took place as early as 1912. These politics seem to have been inspired by the nationalist ideologies of Ilija Garašanin and Jovan Cvijić.92
In the winter of 1915–16, during World War I, Kosovo saw the retreat of the Serbian army as Kosovo was occupied by Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary. In 1918, the Allied Powers pushed the Central Powers out of Kosovo.
A new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three districts (oblast) of the Kingdom: Kosovo, Raška and Zeta. In 1929, the country was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the territories of Kosovo were reorganised among the Banate of Zeta, the Banate of Morava and the Banate of Vardar. In order to change the ethnic composition of Kosovo, between 1912 and 1941 a large-scale Serbian colonisation of Kosovo was undertaken by the Belgrade government. Kosovar Albanians' right to receive education in their own language was denied alongside other non-Slavic or unrecognised Slavic nations of Yugoslavia, as the kingdom only recognised the Slavic Croat, Serb, and Slovene nations as constituent nations of Yugoslavia. Other Slavs had to identify as one of the three official Slavic nations and non-Slav nations deemed as minorities.93
Albanians and other Muslims were forced to emigrate, mainly with the land reform which struck Albanian landowners in 1919, but also with direct violent measures.9495 In 1935 and 1938, two agreements between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Turkey were signed on the expatriation of 240,000 Albanians to Turkey, but the expatriation did not occur due to the outbreak of World War II.96
After the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, most of Kosovo was assigned to Italian-controlled Albania, and the rest was controlled by Germany and Bulgaria. A three-dimensional conflict ensued, involving inter-ethnic, ideological, and international affiliations.97 Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers.98 Estimates differ, but most authors estimate that between 3,000 and 10,000 Serbs and Montenegrins died in Kosovo during the Second World War. Another 30,000 to 40,000, or as high as 100,000, Serbs and Montenegrins, mainly settlers, were deported to Serbia in order to Albanianise Kosovo.99100 A decree from Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito, followed by a new law in August 1945 disallowed the return of colonists who had taken land from Albanian peasants.101 During the war years, some Serbs and Montenegrins were sent to concentration camps in Pristina and Mitrovica.102 Nonetheless, these conflicts were relatively low-level compared with other areas of Yugoslavia during the war years. Two Serb historians also estimate that 12,000 Albanians died.103 An official investigation conducted by the Yugoslav government in 1964 recorded nearly 8,000 war-related fatalities in Kosovo between 1941 and 1945, 5,489 of them Serb or Montenegrin and 2,177 Albanian.104 Some sources note that up to 72,000 individuals were encouraged to settle or resettle into Kosovo from Albania by the short-lived Italian administration.105106 As the regime collapsed, this was never materialised with historians and contemporary references emphasising that a large-scale migration of Albanians from Albania to Kosovo is not recorded in Axis documents.107
Communist Yugoslavia
Main article: Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo
The existing province took shape in 1945 as the Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija, with a final demarcation in 1959.108109 Until 1945, the only entity bearing the name of Kosovo in the late modern period had been the Vilayet of Kosovo, a political unit created by the Ottoman Empire in 1877. However, those borders were different.110
Tensions between ethnic Albanians and the Yugoslav government were significant, not only due to ethnic tensions but also due to political ideological concerns, especially regarding relations with neighbouring Albania.111 Harsh repressive measures were imposed on Kosovo Albanians due to suspicions that there were sympathisers of the Stalinist regime of Enver Hoxha of Albania.112 In 1956, a show trial in Pristina was held in which multiple Albanian Communists of Kosovo were convicted of being infiltrators from Albania and given long prison sentences.113 High-ranking Serbian communist official Aleksandar Ranković sought to secure the position of the Serbs in Kosovo and gave them dominance in Kosovo's nomenklatura.114
Islam in Kosovo at this time was repressed and both Albanians and Muslim Slavs were encouraged to declare themselves to be Turkish and emigrate to Turkey.115 At the same time Serbs and Montenegrins dominated the government, security forces, and industrial employment in Kosovo.116 Albanians resented these conditions and protested against them in the late 1960s, calling the actions taken by authorities in Kosovo colonialist, and demanding that Kosovo be made a republic, or declaring support for Albania.117
After the ouster of Ranković in 1966, the agenda of pro-decentralisation reformers in Yugoslavia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralisation of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognising a Muslim Yugoslav nationality.118 As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale.119 Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the University of Pristina as an Albanian language institution.120 These changes created widespread fear among Serbs that they were being made second-class citizens in Yugoslavia.121 By the 1974 Constitution of Yugoslavia, Kosovo was granted major autonomy, allowing it to have its own administration, assembly, and judiciary; as well as having a membership in the collective presidency and the Yugoslav parliament, in which it held veto power.122
In the aftermath of the 1974 constitution, concerns over the rise of Albanian nationalism in Kosovo rose with the widespread celebrations in 1978 of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the League of Prizren.123 Albanians felt that their status as a "minority" in Yugoslavia had made them second-class citizens in comparison with the "nations" of Yugoslavia and demanded that Kosovo be a constituent republic, alongside the other republics of Yugoslavia.124 Protests by Albanians in 1981 over the status of Kosovo resulted in Yugoslav territorial defence units being brought into Kosovo and a state of emergency being declared resulting in violence and the protests being crushed.125 In the aftermath of the 1981 protests, purges took place in the Communist Party, and rights that had been recently granted to Albanians were rescinded – including ending the provision of Albanian professors and Albanian language textbooks in the education system.126
While Albanians in the region had the highest birth rates in Europe, other areas of Yugoslavia including Serbia had low birth rates. Increased urbanisation and economic development led to higher settlements of Albanian workers into Serb-majority areas, as Serbs departed in response to the economic climate for more favourable real estate conditions in Serbia.127 While there was tension, charges of "genocide" and planned harassment have been discredited as a pretext to revoke Kosovo's autonomy. For example, in 1986 the Serbian Orthodox Church published an official claim that Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to an Albanian program of 'genocide'.128
Even though they were disproved by police statistics,129 they received wide attention in the Serbian press and that led to further ethnic problems and eventual removal of Kosovo's status. Beginning in March 1981, Kosovar Albanian students of the University of Pristina organised protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia and demanding their human rights.130 The protests were brutally suppressed by the police and army, with many protesters arrested.131 During the 1980s, ethnic tensions continued with frequent violent outbreaks against Yugoslav state authorities, resulting in a further increase in emigration of Kosovo Serbs and other ethnic groups.132133 The Yugoslav leadership tried to suppress protests of Kosovo Serbs seeking protection from ethnic discrimination and violence.134
Kosovo War
Main article: Kosovo War
Further information: War crimes in the Kosovo War
Inter-ethnic tensions continued to worsen in Kosovo throughout the 1980s. In 1989, Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, employing a mix of intimidation and political maneuvering, drastically reduced Kosovo's special autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of the ethnic Albanian population.135 Kosovar Albanians responded with a non-violent separatist movement, employing widespread civil disobedience and creation of parallel structures in education, medical care, and taxation, with the ultimate goal of achieving the independence of Kosovo.136
In July 1990, the Kosovo Albanians proclaimed the existence of the Republic of Kosova, and declared it a sovereign and independent state in September 1992.137 In May 1992, Ibrahim Rugova was elected its president.138 During its lifetime, the Republic of Kosova was only officially recognised by Albania. By the mid-1990s, the Kosovo Albanian population was growing restless, as the status of Kosovo was not resolved as part of the Dayton Agreement of November 1995, which ended the Bosnian War. By 1996, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), an ethnic Albanian guerrilla paramilitary group that sought the separation of Kosovo and the eventual creation of a Greater Albania,139 had prevailed over the Rugova's non-violent resistance movement and launched attacks against the Yugoslav Army and Serbian police in Kosovo, resulting in the Kosovo War.140141
By 1998, international pressure compelled Yugoslavia to sign a ceasefire and partially withdraw its security forces. Events were to be monitored by Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) observers according to an agreement negotiated by Richard Holbrooke. The ceasefire did not hold and fighting resumed in December 1998, culminating in the Račak massacre, which attracted further international attention to the conflict.142 Within weeks, a multilateral international conference was convened and by March had prepared a draft agreement known as the Rambouillet Accords, calling for the restoration of autonomy for Kosovo and the deployment of NATO peacekeeping forces. The Yugoslav delegation found the terms unacceptable and refused to sign the draft. Between 24 March and 10 June 1999, NATO intervened by bombing Yugoslavia, aiming to force Milošević to withdraw his forces from Kosovo,143 though NATO could not appeal to any particular motion of the Security Council of the United Nations to help legitimise its intervention. Combined with continued skirmishes between Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav forces the conflict resulted in a further massive displacement of population in Kosovo.144
During the conflict, between 848,000 and 863,000 ethnic Albanians fled or were forcefully driven from Kosovo and an additional 590,000 were internally displaced.145146 Some sources claim that this ethnic cleansing of Albanians was part of a plan known as Operation Horseshoe, described as "Milosevic's final solution to the Kosovo problem".147148149150 However, the existence and implementation of this plan has not been proven.151152
During the war, over 90,000 Serbian and other non-Albanian refugees fled the province. In September 1998, Serbian police collected 34 bodies of people believed to have been seized and murdered by the KLA, among them some ethnic Albanians, at Lake Radonjić near Glođane (Gllogjan) in what became known as the Lake Radonjić massacre, the most serious atrocity by the KLA during the conflict.153154 By June, Milošević agreed to a foreign military presence in Kosovo and the withdrawal of his troops. In the days after the Yugoslav Army withdrew, over 80,000 Serb and other non-Albanian civilians (almost half of 200,000 estimated to live in Kosovo) were expelled from Kosovo, and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.155156157158159 After the Kosovo and other Yugoslav Wars, Serbia became home to the highest number of refugees and IDPs (including Kosovo Serbs) in Europe.160161162
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecuted crimes committed during the Kosovo War. Nine senior Yugoslav officials, including Milošević, were indicted for crimes against humanity and war crimes committed between January and June 1999. Six of the defendants were convicted, one was acquitted, one died before his trial could commence, and one (Milošević) died before his trial could conclude.163 Six KLA members were charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes by the ICTY following the war, and one was convicted.164165166167
In total around 10,317 civilians were killed during the war, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others in addition to 3,218 killed members of armed formations.168
United Nations administration
Main articles: United Nations Administered Kosovo, United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, and Kosovo status process
On 10 June 1999, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorised Kosovo Force (KFOR), a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed the territorial integrity of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia.169
Estimates of the number of Serbs who left when Serbian forces left Kosovo vary from 65,000170 to 250,000.171 Within post-conflict Kosovo Albanian society, calls for retaliation for previous violence done by Serb forces during the war circulated through public culture.172 Widespread attacks against Serbian cultural sites commenced following the conflict and the return of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanian refugees to their homes.173 In 2004, prolonged negotiations over Kosovo's future status, sociopolitical problems and nationalist sentiments resulted in the Kosovo unrest.174175 11 Albanians and 16 Serbs were killed, 900 people (including peacekeepers) were injured, and several houses, public buildings and churches were damaged or destroyed.
International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244. The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, began in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.176
In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution which proposed 'supervised independence' for the province. A draft resolution, backed by the United States, the United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council, was presented and rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.177
Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, had stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians.178 Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others have suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable.179
After many weeks of discussions at the UN, the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backing Ahtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing. Beginning in August, a "Troika" consisting of negotiators from the European Union (Wolfgang Ischinger), the United States (Frank G. Wisner) and Russia (Alexander Botsan-Kharchenko) launched a new effort to reach a status outcome acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina. Despite Russian disapproval, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France appeared likely to recognise Kosovar independence.180 A declaration of independence by Kosovar Albanian leaders was postponed until the end of the Serbian presidential elections (4 February 2008). A significant portion of politicians in both the EU and the US had feared that a premature declaration could boost support in Serbia for the nationalist candidate, Tomislav Nikolić.181
In November 2001, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe supervised the first elections for the Assembly of Kosovo.182 After that election, Kosovo's political parties formed an all-party unity coalition and elected Ibrahim Rugova as president and Bajram Rexhepi (PDK) as Prime Minister.183 After Kosovo-wide elections in October 2004, the LDK and AAK formed a new governing coalition that did not include PDK and Ora. This coalition agreement resulted in Ramush Haradinaj (AAK) becoming Prime Minister, while Ibrahim Rugova retained the position of President. PDK and Ora were critical of the coalition agreement and have since frequently accused that government of corruption.184
Parliamentary elections were held on 17 November 2007. After early results, Hashim Thaçi who was on course to gain 35 per cent of the vote, claimed victory for PDK, the Democratic Party of Kosovo, and stated his intention to declare independence. Thaçi formed a coalition with president Fatmir Sejdiu's Democratic League which was in second place with 22 percent of the vote.185 The turnout at the election was particularly low. Most members of the Serb minority refused to vote.186
Declaration of independence
Main article: 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence
See also: International recognition of Kosovo
Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008.187 As of 16 April 2025, 116 UN states recognised its independence, including all of its immediate neighbours, with the exception of Serbia;188 10 states have subsequently withdrawn that recognition.189190 Of the UN Security Council members, while the US, UK and France do recognise Kosovo's independence, Russia and China do not.191 Since declaring independence, it has become a member of international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and World Bank,192193 though not of the United Nations.
The Serb minority of Kosovo, which largely opposes the declaration of independence, has formed the Community Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija in response. The creation of the assembly was condemned by Kosovo's President Fatmir Sejdiu, while UNMIK has said the assembly is not a serious issue because it will not have an operative role.194 On 8 October 2008, the UN General Assembly resolved, on a proposal by Serbia, to ask the International Court of Justice to render an advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence. The advisory opinion, which is not binding over decisions by states to recognise or not recognise Kosovo, was rendered on 22 July 2010, holding that Kosovo's declaration of independence was not in violation either of general principles of international law, which do not prohibit unilateral declarations of independence, nor of specific international law – in particular UNSCR 1244 – which did not define the final status process nor reserve the outcome to a decision of the Security Council.195
Some rapprochement between the two governments took place on 19 April 2013 as both parties reached the Brussels Agreement, an agreement brokered by the EU that allowed the Serb minority in Kosovo to have its own police force and court of appeals.196 The agreement is yet to be ratified by either parliament.197 Presidents of Serbia and Kosovo organised two meetings, in Brussels on 27 February 2023 and Ohrid on 18 March 2023, to create and agree upon an 11-point agreement on implementing a European Union-backed deal to normalise ties between the two countries, which includes recognising "each other's documents such as passports and license plates".198
A number of protests and demonstrations took place in Kosovo between 2021 and 2023, some of which involved weapons and resulted in deaths on both sides. Amongst the injured were 30 NATO peacekeepers. The main reason behind the 2022–23 demonstrations ended on 1 January 2024 when each country recognised each other's vehicle registration plates.
Governance
Main article: Politics of Kosovo
See also: Government of Kosovo and Human rights in Kosovo
| Vjosa OsmaniPresident | Albin KurtiPrime Minister |
Kosovo is a multi-party parliamentary representative democratic republic. It is governed by legislative, executive and judicial institutions, which derive from the constitution, although, until the Brussels Agreement, North Kosovo was in practice largely controlled by institutions of Serbia or parallel institutions funded by Serbia. Legislative functions are vested in both the Parliament and the ministers within their competencies. The Government exercises the executive power and is composed of the Prime Minister as the head of government, the Deputy Prime Ministers and the Ministers of the various ministries.
The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and subordinate courts, a Constitutional Court, and independent prosecutorial institutions. There also exist multiple independent institutions defined by the constitution and law, as well as local governments. All citizens are equal before the law and gender equality is ensured by the constitution.199200 The Constitutional Framework guarantees a minimum of ten seats in the 120-member Assembly for Serbs, and ten for other minorities, and also guarantees Serbs and other minorities places in the Government.
The president serves as the head of state and represents the unity of the people, elected every five years, indirectly by the parliament through a secret ballot by a two-thirds majority of all deputies. The head of state is invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. The president has the power to return draft legislation to the parliament for reconsideration and has a role in foreign affairs and certain official appointments.201 The Prime Minister serves as the head of government elected by the parliament. Ministers are nominated by the Prime Minister, and then confirmed by the parliament. The head of government exercises executive power of the territory.
Corruption is a major problem and an obstacle to the development of democracy in the country. Those in the judiciary appointed by the government to fight corruption are often government associates. Moreover, prominent politicians and party operatives who commit offences are not prosecuted due to the lack of laws and political will. Organised crime also poses a threat to the economy due to the practices of bribery, extortion and racketeering.202
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Kosovo
The foreign relations of Kosovo are conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Pristina. As of 2023, 104 out of 193 United Nations member states recognise the Republic of Kosovo. Within the European Union, it is recognised by 22 of 27 members and is a potential candidate for the future enlargement of the European Union.203204 On 15 December 2022 Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union.205
Kosovo is a member of several international organisations including the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, International Road and Transport Union, Regional Cooperation Council, Council of Europe Development Bank, Venice Commission and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.206 In 2015, Kosovo's bid to become a member of UNESCO fell three votes short of the two-thirds majority required to join.207 23 countries maintain embassies in Kosovo.208 Kosovo maintains 24 diplomatic missions and 28 consular missions abroad.209210
The relations with Albania are in a special case considering that both countries share the same language and culture. The Albanian language is one of the official languages of Kosovo. Albania has an embassy in the capital Pristina and Kosovo an embassy in Tirana. In 1992, Albania was the only country whose parliament voted to recognise the Republic of Kosova. Albania was also one of the first countries to officially announce its recognition of the Republic of Kosovo in February 2008.
From 1 January 2024 Kosovo nationals became exempt from visa requirements within the Schengen Area for periods of up to 90 days in any 180-day period.211
Law
Main article: Law of Kosovo
The judicial system of Kosovo follows a civil law framework and comprises regular civil and criminal courts, alongside administrative courts. Administered by the judicial council in Pristina, the system includes the supreme court as the highest judicial authority, a constitutional court and an independent prosecutorial institution.212 Following the independence of Kosovo in 2008, the Kosovo Police assumed the primary law enforcement responsibilities within the country.
Covering a broad range of issues related to the status of Kosovo, the Ahtisaari Plan introduced two forms of international supervision for Kosovo following its independence, including the International Civilian Office (ICO) and the European Union Rule of Law Mission to Kosovo (EULEX).213 The ICO monitored plan implementation and possessed veto powers, while EULEX focused on developing judicial systems and had arrest and prosecution authority. These bodies were granted powers under Kosovo's declaration of independence and constitution.214215
The legal status of the ICO depended upon the de facto situation and Kosovo legislation, with oversight provided by the International Steering Group (ISG) comprising states that recognized Kosovo. Serbia and non-recognising states did not acknowledge the ICO. Despite initial opposition, EULEX gained acceptance from Serbia and the UN Security Council in 2008. It operated under the UNMIK mandate with operational independence. The ICO concluded operations in 2012 after fulfilling obligations, while EULEX continues to operate within Kosovo and international law.216 Its role has been extended, primarily focusing on monitoring with reduced responsibilities.217
According to the Global Safety Report by Gallup, which assesses personal security worldwide through the Law and Order Index Scores for 2023, Kosovo has distinguished itself by ranking among the top ten countries globally in terms of perceived safety and law enforcement effectiveness.218219
Military
Main article: Kosovo Security Force
The Kosovo Security Force (KSF) is the national security force of Kosovo commissioned with the task of preserving and safeguarding the country's territorial integrity, national sovereignty and the security interests of its population.220 Functioning under the president of Kosovo as the commander-in-chief, the security force adheres to the principle of non-discrimination, guaranteeing equal protection for its personnel regardless of gender or ethnicity.221222 Kosovo's notable challenges are identified in the realms of persistent conflicts and societal safety and security, both of which are intertwined with the country's diplomatic ties to neighboring countries and its domestic social and political stability.223
The Kosovo Force (KFOR) is a NATO-led international peacekeeping force in Kosovo.224 Its operations are gradually reducing until Kosovo's Security Force, established in 2009, becomes self-sufficient.225 KFOR entered Kosovo on 12 June 1999,226 one day after the United Nations Security Council adopted the UNSC Resolution 1244. Camp Bondsteel is the operation headquarters of the Kosovo Force (KFOR) in Kosovo. It is located near Ferizaj227 in southeastern Kosovo. It is the Regional Command-East headed by the United States Army (U.S. Army) and it is supported by troops from Greece, Italy, Finland, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, Switzerland and Turkey.
In 2008, under the leadership of NATO, the Kosovo Force (KFOR) and the Kosovo Protection Corps (KPC) undertook preparations for the formation of the Kosovo Security Force. A significant milestone occurred in 2014 when the government officially announced its decision to establish a Ministry of Defence by 2019, with the aim of transforming the existing Kosovo Security Force into the Kosovo Armed Forces. This transformation would entail aligning the armed forces with the high standards expected of NATO members, reflecting Kosovo's aspiration to join the alliance in the future.228 Subsequently, in December 2018, the government enacted legislation to redefine the mandate of the Kosovo Security Force, effecting its transformation into an army. Concurrently, the establishment of a Ministry of Defence was set in motion, further solidifying these developments and ensuring the necessary infrastructure and oversight for the newly formed armed forces.229
In 2023, the Kosovo Security Force had over 5,000 active members, using vehicles and weapons acquired from a number of NATO countries. KFOR continues to operate in Kosovo under its UN mandate.230
Administrative divisions
Main article: Districts of Kosovo
See also: Municipalities of Kosovo
Kosovo is divided into seven districts (Albanian: rajon; okrug), according to the Law of Kosovo and the Brussels Agreement of 2013, which stipulated the formation of new municipalities with Serb majority populations. The districts are further subdivided into 38 municipalities (komunë; opština). The largest and most populous district of Kosovo is the District of Pristina with the capital in Pristina, having a surface area of 2,470 km2 (953.67 sq mi) and a population of 477,312.
| PejaGjakovaPrizren MitrovicaPristinaFerizaj Gjilan |
|
Geography
Main article: Geography of Kosovo
Defined in a total area of 10,887 square kilometres (4,203 square miles), Kosovo is landlocked and located in the centre of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe. It lies between latitudes 42° and 43° N, and longitudes 20° and 22° E.231 The northernmost point is Bellobërda at 43° 14' 06" northern latitude; the southernmost is Restelicë at 41° 56' 40" northern latitude; the westernmost point is Bogë at 20° 3' 23" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is Desivojca at 21° 44' 21" eastern longitude. The highest point of Kosovo is Velika Rudoka at 2,660 metres (8,730 ft) above sea level,232233234235 and the lowest is the White Drin at 297 metres (974 ft).
Most of the borders of Kosovo are dominated by mountainous and high terrain. The most noticeable topographical features are the Accursed Mountains and the Šar Mountains. The Accursed Mountains are a geological continuation of the Dinaric Alps. The mountains run laterally through the west along the border with Albania and Montenegro. The southeast is predominantly the Šar Mountains, which constitute the border with North Macedonia. Besides the mountain ranges, Kosovo's territory consists mostly of two major plains, the Kosovo Plain in the east and the Metohija Plain in the west.
Additionally, Kosovo consists of multiple geographic and ethnographic regions, such as Drenica, Dushkaja, Gollak, Has, Highlands of Gjakova, Llap, Llapusha, Reka e Keqe and Rugova.
Kosovo's hydrological resources are relatively small; there are few lakes in Kosovo, the largest of which are Lake Batllava, Badovc Lake, Lake Gazivoda, Lake Radoniq.236237 In addition to these, Kosovo also does have karst springs, thermal and mineral water springs.238 The longest rivers of Kosovo include the White Drin, the South Morava and the Ibar. Sitnica, a tributary of Ibar, is the largest river lying completely within Kosovo's territory. Nerodime river represents Europe's only instance of a river bifurcation flowing into the Black Sea and Aegean Sea.
Climate
Main article: Climate of Kosovo
Most of Kosovo experiences predominantly a Continental climate with Mediterranean and Alpine influences,239 strongly influenced by Kosovo's proximity to the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Aegean Sea in the south as well as the European continental landmass in the north.240
The coldest areas are situated in the mountainous region to the west and southeast, where an Alpine climate is prevalent. The warmest areas are mostly in the extreme southern areas close to the border with Albania, where a Mediterranean climate is the norm. Mean monthly temperature ranges between 0 °C (32 °F) (in January) and 22 °C (72 °F) (in July). Mean annual precipitation ranges from 600 to 1,300 mm (24 to 51 in) per year, and is well distributed year-round.
To the northeast, the Kosovo Plain and Ibar Valley are drier with total precipitation of about 600 millimetres (24 inches) per year and more influenced by continental air masses, with colder winters and very hot summers. In the southwest, climatic area of Metohija receives more mediterranean influences with warmer summers, somewhat higher precipitation (700 mm (28 in)) and heavy snowfalls in the winter. The mountainous areas of the Accursed Mountains in the west, Šar Mountains on the south and Kopaonik in the north experiences alpine climate, with high precipitation (900 to 1,300 mm (35 to 51 in) per year), short and fresh summers, and cold winters.241 The average annual temperature of Kosovo is 9.5 °C (49.1 °F). The warmest month is July with average temperature of 19.2 °C (66.6 °F), and the coldest is January with −1.3 °C (29.7 °F). Except Prizren and Istog, all other meteorological stations in January recorded average temperatures under 0 °C (32 °F).242
Biodiversity
Main article: Biodiversity of Kosovo
See also: Protected areas of Kosovo
Located in Southeastern Europe, Kosovo receives floral and faunal species from Europe and Eurasia. Forests are widespread in Kosovo and cover at least 39% of the region. Phytogeographically, it straddles the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. In addition, it falls within three terrestrial ecoregions: Balkan mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests, and Pindus Mountains mixed forests.243 Kosovo's biodiversity is conserved in two national parks, eleven nature reserves and one hundred three other protected areas.244 The Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park and Sharr Mountains National Park are the most important regions of vegetation and biodiversity in Kosovo.245 Kosovo had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.19/10, ranking it 107th globally out of 172 countries.246
Flora encompasses more than 1,800 species of vascular plant species, but the actual number is estimated to be higher than 2,500 species.247248 The diversity is the result of the complex interaction of geology and hydrology creating a wide variety of habitat conditions for flora growth. Although, Kosovo represents only 2.3% of the entire surface area of the Balkans, in terms of vegetation it has 25% of the Balkan flora and about 18% of the European flora.249 The fauna is composed of a wide range of species.250: 14 The mountainous west and southeast provide a great habitat for several rare or endangered species including brown bears, lynxes, wild cats, wolves, foxes, wild goats, roebucks and deers.251 A total of 255 species of birds have been recorded, with raptors such as the golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle and lesser kestrel living principally in the mountains of Kosovo.
Environmental issues
Environmental issues in Kosovo include a wide range of challenges pertaining to air and water pollution, climate change, waste management, biodiversity loss and nature conservation.252 The vulnerability of the country to climate change is influenced by various factors, such as increased temperatures, geological and hydrological hazards, including droughts, flooding, fires and rains.253 Kosovo is not a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol or the Paris Agreement.254 Consequently, the country is not mandated to submit a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) that are voluntary commitments outlining a nation's actions and strategies for mitigating climate change and adapting to its impacts.255 However, since 2021, Kosovo is actively engaged in the process of formulating a voluntary NDC, with assistance provided from Japan.256257 In 2023, the country has established a goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 16.3% as part of its broader objective to achieve carbon neutrality by the year 2050.258
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Kosovo
Further information: Demographic history of Kosovo
According to the last census of 2024 by the Kosovo Agency of Statistics, Kosovo's population is 1,585,566.259260 In 2023, the overall life expectancy at birth is 79.68 years; 77.38 years for males and 81.87 years for females.261 The estimated total fertility rate in 2023 is 1.88 children born per woman.262 The country is the 11th most populous country in the Southeastern Europe (Balkans) and ranks as the 152nd most populous country in the world. The country's population rose steadily over the 20th century and peaked at an estimated 2.2 million in 1998. The Kosovo War and subsequent migration have decreased the population of Kosovo over time.
Relations between Kosovar Albanians and Kosovar Serbs have been hostile since the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the 19th century.263 During Communism in Yugoslavia, the ethnic Albanians and Serbs were strongly irreconcilable, with sociological studies during the Tito-era indicating that ethnic Albanians and Serbs rarely accepted each other as neighbors or friends and few held inter-ethnic marriages.264 Ethnic prejudices, stereotypes and mutual distrust between ethnic Albanians and Serbs have remained common for decades.265 The level of intolerance and separation between both communities during the Tito-period was reported by sociologists to be worse than that of Croat and Serb communities in Yugoslavia, which also had tensions but held some closer relations between each other.266
Despite their planned integration into the Kosovar society and their recognition in the Kosovar constitution, the Romani, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities continue to face many difficulties, such as segregation and discrimination, in housing, education, health, employment and social welfare.267 Many camps around Kosovo continue to house thousands of internally displaced people, all of whom are from minority groups and communities.268 Because many of the Roma are believed to have sided with the Serbs during the conflict, taking part in the widespread looting and destruction of Albanian property, Minority Rights Group International report that Romani people encounter hostility by Albanians outside their local areas.269 A 2020 research report funded by the EU shows that there is a limited scale of trust and overall contact between the major ethnic groups in Kosovo.270
According to the World Happiness Report 2024, which evaluates the happiness levels of citizens in various countries, Kosovo is currently ranked 29th among a total of 143 nations assessed, compared with neighbours Serbia ranked 37th, Montenegro 76th, North Macedonia 84th and Albania 87th.271
Largest municipalities by population (2024)272| PristinaPrizren | Rank | Municipality | Population | Rank | Municipality | Population | FerizajPeja |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Pristina | 227,154 | 11 | Lipjan | 54,974 | ||
| 2 | Prizren | 147,428 | 12 | Drenas | 48,054 | ||
| 3 | Ferizaj | 109,345 | 13 | Suharekë | 45,713 | ||
| 4 | Gjilan | 82,901 | 14 | Malisheva | 43,871 | ||
| 5 | Peja | 82,661 | 15 | Rahovec | 41,777 | ||
| 6 | Gjakova | 78,824 | 16 | Skenderaj | 40,632 | ||
| 7 | Podujevë | 71,018 | 17 | Viti | 35,549 | ||
| 8 | Mitrovica | 64,680 | 18 | Istog | 33,066 | ||
| 9 | Kosovo Polje | 64,078 | 19 | Klina | 30,574 | ||
| 10 | Vushtrri | 61,493 | 20 | Dragash | 28,908 | ||
Ethnicity
Kosovo is a fairly ethnically homogeneous country. In 2024, Albanians constituted around 92% of the population of Kosovo, followed by ethnic Serbs (2.3%), Bosniaks (1.7%), Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians (1.7%), Turks (1.2%), Romani (<1%), and the Gorani (<1%).273 Ethnic Serbs are concentrated in the north of the country, as well as in other municipalities in the east of the country, such as Gračanica and Štrpce. Turks form a local majority in the municipality of Mamusha, just north of Prizren, while the Bosniaks are mainly located within Prizren itself. The Gorani are concentrated in the southernmost tip of the country, in Dragash. The Romani are spread across the entire country.
Languages
Main article: Languages of Kosovo
In Kosovo, Albanian and Serbian are the official languages at the national level, but Albanian is the predominant language in Kosovo, spoken by over 92% of the population.274275276 Its standard written form is a blend of the two main dialects, Gheg and Tosk, although the spoken form predominantly is the Gheg dialect. Turkish holds official language status in the Municipality of Prizren, regardless of the size of the Turkish-speaking population. At the municipal level, Turkish, Bosnian, and Romani may also be granted official status when a linguistic community constitutes at least 5% of the local population. This multilingual policy aims to protect the rights of minority language speakers and also promote inclusion of the communities.277278
Religion
Main article: Religion in Kosovo
Kosovo is a secular state with no state religion; freedom of belief, conscience and religion is explicitly guaranteed in the Constitution of Kosovo.279280281 Kosovo's society is strongly secularised and is ranked first in Southern Europe and ninth in the world as free and equal for tolerance towards religion and atheism.282283
In the 2024 census, 93.5% of the population of Kosovo were Sunni Muslims, 2.3% were Eastern Orthodox and 1.8% Roman Catholics.284 Additionally, 0.5% of population reported affiliation with other religions, 0.5% stated they have no religious belief, and 1.5% chose not to disclose their religious affiliation. Protestants, although recognised as a religious group in Kosovo by the government, were not represented in the census.285
Islam is the most widely practiced religion in Kosovo and was introduced in the Middle Ages by the Ottomans. Today, Kosovo has the second-highest number of Muslims as a percentage of its population in Europe after Turkey.286 The majority of the Muslim population of Kosovo are ethnic Albanians, Turks, and Slavs such as Gorani and Bosniaks.287
Members of the Roman Catholic Church are predominantly Albanians while ethnic Serbs mainly belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church. In 2008, Protestant pastor Artur Krasniqi, primate of the Kosovo Protestant Evangelical Church, claimed that "as many as 15,000" Kosovar Albanians had converted to Protestantism since 1985.288
In general, Albanians define their ethnicity by language and not by religion, while religion reflects a distinguishing identity feature among the Slavs of Kosovo and elsewhere.289
Economy
Main article: Economy of Kosovo
The economy of Kosovo is a transitional economy. It suffered from the combined results of political upheaval, the Serbian dismissal of Kosovo employees and the following Yugoslav Wars. Despite declining foreign assistance, the GDP has mostly grown since its declaration of independence. This was despite the 2008 financial crisis and the subsequent European debt crisis. Additionally, the inflation rate has been low. Most economic development has taken place in the trade, retail and construction sectors. Kosovo is highly dependent on remittances from the diaspora, foreign direct investment, and other capital inflows.290 In 2018, the International Monetary Fund reported that approximately one-sixth of the population lived below the poverty line and one-third of the working age population was unemployed, the highest rate in Europe.291
Kosovo's largest trading partners are Albania, Italy, Switzerland, China, Germany and Turkey. The Euro is its official currency.292 The Government of Kosovo has signed free-trade agreements with Albania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and North Macedonia.293294295296 Kosovo is a member of CEFTA, agreed with UNMIK, and enjoys free trade with most nearby non-European Union countries.297
Kosovo is dominated by the services sector, accounting for 54% of GDP and employing approximately 56.6% of the population.298 The industry accounted for 37.3% of GDP and employs roughly 24.8% of the labour force.299 There are several reasons for the stagnation, ranging from consecutive occupations, political turmoil and the War in Kosovo in 1999.300 While agriculture accounts for only 6.6% of GDP, albeit an increase of 0.5 percentage points from 2019, it forms 18.7% of Kosovo's workforce, the highest proportion of agricultural employment in the region after Albania.301
Kosovo has large reserves of lead, zinc, silver, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and bauxite.302 The nation has the fifth-largest lignite reserves in the world and the third in Europe.303 The Directorate for Mines and Minerals and the World Bank estimated that Kosovo had €13.5 billion worth of minerals in 2005.304 The primary sector is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units.305 53% of the nation's area is agricultural land, 41% forest and forestry land, and 6% for others.306
Wine has historically been produced in Kosovo. The main heartland of Kosovo's wine industry is in Rahovec. The main cultivars include Pinot noir, Merlot, and Chardonnay. Kosovo exports wines to Germany and the United States.307 The four state-owned wine production facilities were not as much "wineries" as they were "wine factories". Only the Rahovec facility that held approximately 36% of the total vineyard area had the capacity of around 50 million litres annually. The major share of the wine production was intended for exports. At its peak in 1989, the exports from the Rahovec facility amounted to 40 million litres and were mainly distributed to the German market.308
Energy
Main article: Electrical energy in Kosovo
The electricity sector in Kosovo is considered one of the sectors with the greatest potential of development.309 Kosovo's electricity sector is highly dependent on coal-fired power plants, which use the abundant lignite, so efforts are being made to diversify electricity generation with more renewables sources, such as wind farms in Bajgora and Kitka.310311
A joint energy bloc between Kosovo and Albania, is in work after an agreement which was signed in December 2019.312 With that agreement Albania and Kosovo will now be able to exchange energy reserves, which is expected to result in €4 million in savings per year for Kosovo.313
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Kosovo
The natural values of Kosovo represent quality tourism resources. The description of Kosovo's potential in tourism is closely related to its geographical location, in the centre of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe. It represents a crossroads which historically dates back to antiquity. Kosovo serves as a link in the connection between Central and Southern Europe and the Adriatic Sea and Black Sea. Kosovo is generally rich in various topographical features, including high mountains, lakes, canyons, steep rock formations and rivers.314 The mountainous west and southeast of Kosovo has great potential for winter tourism. Skiing takes place at the Brezovica ski resort within the Šar Mountains,315 with the close proximity to the Pristina Airport (60 km) and Skopje International Airport (70 km) which is a popular destination for international tourists.
Kosovo also has lakes like Lake Batllava that serves as a popular destination for watersports, camping, and swimming.316 Other lakes include Ujmani Lake, Liqenati Lake, Zemra Lake.317
Other major attractions include the capital, Pristina, the historical cities of Prizren, Peja and Gjakova but also Ferizaj and Gjilan.
The New York Times included Kosovo on the list of 41 places to visit in 2011.318319
Transport
Main article: Transport in Kosovo
See also: Motorways in Kosovo
Road transportation of passengers and freight is the most common form of transportation in Kosovo. There are two main motorways in Kosovo: the R7 connecting Kosovo with Albania and the R6 connecting Pristina to the Macedonian border at Hani i Elezit. The construction of the R7.1 Motorway began in 2017.
The R7 Motorway (part of Albania-Kosovo Highway) links Kosovo to Albania's Adriatic coast in Durrës. Once the remaining European route (E80) from Pristina to Merdare section project will be completed, the motorway will link Kosovo through the present European route (E80) highway with the Pan-European corridor X (E75) near Niš in Serbia. The R6 Motorway, forming part of the E65, is the second motorway constructed in the region. It links the capital Pristina with the border with North Macedonia at Hani i Elezit, which is about 20 km (12 mi) from Skopje. Construction of the motorway started in 2014 and finished in 2019.320
Trainkos operates daily passenger trains on two routes: Pristina – Fushë Kosovë – Pejë, as well as Pristina – Fushë Kosovë – Ferizaj – Skopje, North Macedonia (the latter in cooperation with Macedonian Railways).321 Also, freight trains run throughout the country.
The nation hosts two airports, Pristina International Airport and Gjakova Airport. Pristina International Airport is located southwest of Pristina. It is Kosovo's only international airport and the only port of entry for air travelers to Kosovo. Gjakova Airport was built by the Kosovo Force (KFOR) following the Kosovo War, next to an existing airfield used for agricultural purposes, and was used mainly for military and humanitarian flights. The local and national government plans to offer Gjakova Airport for operation under a public-private partnership with the aim of turning it into a civilian and commercial airport.322
Infrastructure
Health
Main article: Health in Kosovo
In the past, Kosovo's capabilities to develop a modern health care system were limited.323 Low GDP during 1990 worsened the situation even more. However, the establishment of Faculty of Medicine in the University of Pristina marked a significant development in health care. This was also followed by launching different health clinics which enabled better conditions for professional development.324
Nowadays the situation has changed, and the health care system in Kosovo is organised into three sectors: primary, secondary and tertiary health care.325 Primary health care in Pristina is organised into thirteen family medicine centres326 and fifteen ambulatory care units.327 Secondary health care is decentralised in seven regional hospitals. Pristina does not have any regional hospital and instead uses University Clinical Centre of Kosovo for health care services. University Clinical Centre of Kosovo provides its health care services in twelve clinics,328 where 642 doctors are employed.329 At a lower level, home services are provided for several vulnerable groups which are not able to reach health care premises.330 Kosovo health care services are now focused on patient safety, quality control and assisted health.331
Education
See also: Education in Kosovo
Education for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels is predominantly public and supported by the state, run by the Ministry of Education. Education takes place in two main stages: primary and secondary education, and higher education.
The primary and secondary education is subdivided into four stages: preschool education, primary and low secondary education, high secondary education and special education. Preschool education is for children from the ages of one to five. Primary and secondary education is obligatory for everyone. It is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools and also available in languages of recognised minorities in Kosovo, where classes are held in Albanian, Serbian, Bosnian, Turkish and Croatian. The first phase (primary education) includes grades one to five, and the second phase (low secondary education) grades six to nine. The third phase (high secondary education) consists of general education but also professional education, which is focused on different fields. It lasts four years. However, pupils are offered possibilities of applying for higher or university studies. According to the Ministry of Education, children who are not able to get a general education are able to get a special education (fifth phase).332 Higher education can be received in universities and other higher-education institutes. These educational institutions offer studies for Bachelor, Master and PhD degrees. The students may choose full-time or part-time studies.
Students from Kosovo performed very poorly on several PISA tests, and this result has sparked debates about the education system.333334
Media
Main article: Media of Kosovo
Kosovo ranks 56th out of 180 countries in the 2023 Press Freedom Index report compiled by the Reporters Without Borders.335 The Media consists of different kinds of communicative media such as radio, television, newspapers, and internet web sites. Most of the media survive from advertising and subscriptions. As according to IREX there are 92 radio stations and 22 television stations.336
Culture
Main article: Culture of Kosovo
Cuisine
Main article: Kosovar cuisine
Kosovar cuisine is distinguished by multifaceted culinary influences derived from Balkan, Mediterranean, and Ottoman traditions.337 This combination reflects Kosovo's diverse historical and cultural contexts while highlighting its Albanian heritage.338339 A paramount aspect of this tradition is the principle of hospitality, as articulated in the Kanun, which guides various aspects of social interactions and practices.340 Particularly, the notion "the house of an Albanian belongs to God and to the guest" underscores the high regard on treating guests with respect and generosity.341 Fli stands out for its unique preparation, which involves layering batter and cream in a special pan called a saç, baked slowly over several hours.342 Pite, a savory pie filled with a mixture of meat, cheese, or spinach, is often enjoyed as a hearty meal throughout Kosovo. Another popular dish is Byrek, a flaky pastry that can be filled with a variety of ingredients, including meat, spinach, or cheese, and is often prepared in circular pans.343 Qebapa are hand-rolled sausages, traditionally made from a blend of minced beef and other meats, are seasoned with a mix of spices such as garlic and black pepper.344 They are commonly served alongside freshly baked bread, raw onions and ajvar, a popular savory red pepper, eggplant and garlic spread that complements the dish.345 Petulla, or fried dough balls also known as Llokuma, are often drizzled with honey or sprinkled with sugar. Reçel, a type of fruit preserve, is made from various fruits and often used as a spread on bread or served alongside petulla.
Bakllavë is a traditional dessert in Southern Europe, comprising layers of phyllo pastry filled with nuts and drizzled with honey that is often served for festive occasions.346 Another notable dessert is Trileçe, a sponge cake soaked in a blend of three types of milk and covered with caramel.347 The coffee culture of Kosovo represents a vibrant and essential aspect of daily life, functioning as a cornerstone for social interactions and communal gatherings.348 In Kosovo, coffee symbolises hospitality and community, inviting both locals and visitors to connect.349 Often accompanied by traditional sweets and pastries, the preparation of coffee typically involves a cezve, a traditional pot for brewing finely ground coffee. This method emphasises the ceremonial nature of coffee preparation. Hosts take pride in serving their guests the finest brew, highlighting the importance of hospitality. The act of sharing coffee fosters meaningful conversations among individuals, with people recounting stories and engaging in discussions about life.350
Sports
Main article: Sport in Kosovo
See also: Membership of Kosovo in international sports federations
Since its declaration of independence in 2008, Kosovo has made substantial advancements in international sports. The nation's inaugural participation in the Olympic Games occurred at the 2016 games, where it achieved a milestone by securing its first medals, totaling five medals to date.351 Kosovo's involvement in the European Games began in 2015, during which the nation amassed four medals. Additionally, Kosovo commenced participation in the Mediterranean Games in 2018, achieving success with a total of ten medals.352353 Forthcoming, Kosovo is scheduled to host the 2030 games, marking a significant opportunity for the nation in the realm of international sports.354355 Notable athletes such as Laura Fazliu, Akil Gjakova, Nora Gjakova, Majlinda Kelmendi, Loriana Kuka, and Distria Krasniqi have played vital roles in Kosovo's sporting achievements, with Majlinda Kelmendi being particularly recognised for winning the nation's first Olympic gold medal.356 Judo has become a cornerstone of Kosovo's success in international competitions, accounting for the majority of the nation's medals across various events.357358 Prior to Kosovo's independence, notable athletes such as Aziz Salihu, Vladimir Durković, Fahrudin Jusufi, and Milutin Šoškić represented Yugoslavia, thereby contributing to the diverse athletic heritage of Kosovo.359
Kosovo achieved full membership status in both the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) in 2016, facilitating the nation's participation in international football competitions.360361 As a result, the national football team of Kosovo became eligible to compete in qualification rounds for major tournaments such as the UEFA Nations League, the European Championship and the FIFA World Cup.362363 The team's paramount achievement occurred during the 2018–19 edition of the UEFA Nations League, wherein they concluded the tournament atop their League D group, maintaining an unbeaten record of four victories and two draws, thus securing promotion to a higher competitive tier.364 Several Kosovo-Albanian players have opted to represent various European nations, highlighting figures examples, including Lorik Cana for Albania and Adnan Januzaj for Belgium. Furthermore, key contributions have come from players such as Valon Behrami, Xherdan Shaqiri, and Granit Xhaka, all of whom have made pivotal contributions to the Swiss team.365
Arts
Main articles: Architecture and Monuments of Kosovo
See also: Destruction of Albanian and Serbian heritage in Kosovo
The architecture of Kosovo dates back to the Neolithic, Bronze and Middle Ages. It has been influenced by the presence of different civilisations and religions as evidenced by the structures which have survived to this day.
Kosovo is home to many monasteries and churches from the 13th and 14th centuries that represent the Serbian Orthodox legacy. Architectural heritage from the Ottoman Period includes mosques and hamams from the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. Other historical architectural structures of interest include kullas from the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as a number of bridges, urban centres and fortresses. While some vernacular buildings are not considered important in their own right, taken together they are of considerable interest. During the 1999 conflict in Kosovo, many buildings that represent this heritage were destroyed or damaged.366367 In the Dukagjini region, at least 500 kullas were attacked, and most of them destroyed or otherwise damaged.368
In 2004, UNESCO recognised the Visoki Dečani monastery as World Heritage Site for its outstanding universal value. Two years later, the site of patrimony was extended as a serial nomination, to include three other religious monuments: Patriarchate of Peja, Our Lady of Ljeviš and Gračanica monastery under the name of Medieval Monuments in Kosovo.369 It consists of four Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries, which represent the fusion of the eastern Orthodox Byzantine and the western Romanesque ecclesiastical architecture to form the Palaiologan Renaissance style.
These monuments have come under attack, especially during the 2004 ethnic violence. In 2006, the property was inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger due to difficulties in its management and conservation stemming from the region's political instability.370
Kosovar art was unknown to the international public for a very long time, because of the regime, many artists were unable to display their art in art galleries, and so were always on the lookout for alternatives, and even resorted to taking matters into their own hands. Until 1990, artists from Kosovo presented their art in many prestigious worldwide renowned centres. They were affirmed and evaluated highly because of their unique approach to the arts considering the circumstances in which they were created, making them distinguished and original.371372
In February 1979, the Kosova National Art Gallery was founded. It became the highest institution of visual arts in Kosovo. It was named after one of the most prominent artists of Kosovo Muslim Mulliqi. Engjëll Berisha, Masar Caka, Tahir Emra, Abdullah Gërguri, Hysni Krasniqi, Nimon Lokaj, Aziz Nimani, Ramadan Ramadani, Esat Valla and Lendita Zeqiraj are some of few Albanian painters born in Kosovo.
Music
Main article: Music of Kosovo
Although the music in Kosovo is diverse, authentic Albanian and Serbian music still exist. Albanian music is characterised by the use of the Çifteli. Classical music is well known in Kosovo and has been taught at several music schools and universities. In 2014, Kosovo submitted their first film for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, with Three Windows and a Hanging directed by Isa Qosja.373
A baked-clay ocarina was found in the village of Runik which is considered to be the oldest musical instrument found in Kosovo and one of the oldest ocarinas ever found in Europe.374 The Runik ocarina is thought to be at least 8,000 years old.375
In the past, epic poetry in Kosovo and Northern Albania was sung on a lahuta and then a more tuneful çiftelia was used which has two strings-one for the melody and one for drone. Kosovar music is influenced by Turkish music due to the almost 500-year span of Ottoman rule in Kosovo though Kosovar folklore has preserved its originality and exemplary.376 Archaeological research tells how old this tradition is and how it was developed in parallel with other traditional music in the Balkans. Roots dating to the 5th century BC have been found in paintings on stones of singers with instruments. (There is a famous portrait of "Pani" holding an instrument similar to a flute).377
The contemporary music artists Rita Ora, Dua Lipa and Era Istrefi, are all of Albanian origin and have achieved international recognition for their music.378 One widely recognised musician from Prizren is guitarist Petrit Çeku, winner of several international prizes.379
Serbian music from Kosovo presents a mixture of traditional music, which is part of the wider Balkan tradition, with its own distinctive sound, and various Western and Turkish influences.380 Serb songs from Kosovo were an inspiration for 12th song wreath by composer Stevan Mokranjac. Most of Serbian music from Kosovo was dominated by church music, with its own share of sung epic poetry.381 Serbian national instrument Gusle is also used in Kosovo.382
Viktorija is the only artist from Kosovo who represented Yugoslavia in the Eurovision Song Contest as part of Aska in 1982. Singer Rona Nishliu finished 5th in the 2012 Eurovision Song Contest, while Lindita represented Albania in 2017. Several Serbian singers from Kosovo have also participated in the Serbian national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. Nevena Božović represented Serbia in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest and twice in the Eurovision Song Contest, firstly as a member of Moje 3 in 2013 and as a solo act in 2019.
Cinema
Main article: Cinema of Kosovo
The film industry of Kosovo dates from the 1970s. In 1969, the parliament of Kosovo established Kosovafilm, a state institution for the production, distribution and showing of films. Its initial director was the actor Abdurrahman Shala, followed by writer and noted poet Azem Shkreli, under whose direction the most successful films were produced. Subsequent directors of Kosovafilm were Xhevar Qorraj, Ekrem Kryeziu and Gani Mehmetaj. After producing seventeen feature films, numerous short films and documentaries, the institution was taken over by the Serbian authorities in 1990 and dissolved. Kosovafilm was reestablished after Yugoslav withdrawal from the region in June 1999 and has since been endeavoring to revive the film industry in Kosovo.
The International Documentary and Short Film Festival is the largest film event in Kosovo. The Festival is organised in August in Prizren, which attracts numerous international and regional artists. In this annually organised festival, films are screened twice a day in three open-air cinemas as well as in two regular cinemas. Except for its films, the festival is also well known for lively nights after the screening. Various events happen within the scope of the festival: workshops, DokuPhoto exhibitions, festival camping, concerts, which altogether turn the city into a charming place to be. In 2010, Dokufest was voted as one of the 25 best international documentary festivals.383
International actors of Albanian origin from Kosovo include Arta Dobroshi, James Biberi, Faruk Begolli and Bekim Fehmiu. The Prishtina International Film Festival is the largest film festival, held annually in Pristina, in Kosovo that screens prominent international cinema productions in the Balkan region and beyond, and draws attention to the Kosovar film industry.
The movie Shok was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film at the 88th Academy Awards.384 The movie was written and directed by Oscar nominated director Jamie Donoughue, based on true events during the Kosovo war. Shok's distributor is Ouat Media, and the social media campaign is led by Team Albanians.
See also
Notes
Sources
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- Papazoglu, Fanula (1978). The Central Balkan Tribes in pre-Roman Times: Triballi, Autariatae, Dardanians, Scordisci and Moesians. Amsterdam: Hakkert. p. 131. ISBN 978-90-256-0793-7. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
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External links
Wikimedia Atlas of Kosovo
- President of Kosovo Archived 1 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine – (in Albanian)
- Prime Minister of Kosovo Archived 2 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine – (in Albanian)
- Parliament of Kosovo Archived 5 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine – (in Albanian)
- EULEX Archived 5 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine – (in English)
- Kosovo Archived 4 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine at The World Factbook by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
42°35′N 21°00′E / 42.583°N 21.000°E / 42.583; 21.000
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