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Josef Mengele
Nazi SS doctor at Auschwitz (1911–1979)

Josef Mengele was a Nazi SS officer and physician during World War II, infamous for conducting deadly experiments on prisoners at the Auschwitz II-Birkenau camp during the Holocaust. Before the war, he earned doctorates in anthropology and medicine and joined the Nazi Party in 1937. Post-war, Mengele escaped to South America via a network of former SS members, living in countries like Argentina and Brazil while evading capture by West Germany and Mossad. He died in 1979 in Brazil, with his identity confirmed years later through forensic examination.

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Early life

Mengele was born into a Catholic family3 in Günzburg, Bavaria, on 16 March 1911, the eldest of three sons of Walburga (née Hupfauer) and Karl Mengele.4 His two younger brothers were Karl Jr. and Alois. Their father was the founder of the Karl Mengele & Sons company (later renamed Mengele Agrartechnik [de]), which produced farming machinery.5 In 1915, the company expanded and switched to producing military equipment such as specialized wagons for military transport and parts for deploying naval mines. Karl joined the Nazi Party in 1933 and the SS in 1935, primarily as a way to advance his career in local politics. He served as a district economic advisor, and was found during denazification proceedings after the Second World War to have not been a committed Nazi.6

Mengele was successful at school and developed an interest in music, art, and skiing.7 In 1924, he joined the Greater German Youth League [de], a right-wing youth group, and remained a member until 1930, serving as leader of the local chapter from 1927.8 He completed high school in April 1930 and went on to study medicine at the University of Munich.910 (Munich is where the headquarters of the Nazi Party was located.11) After two semesters, he switched to the University of Bonn,12 where he took his medical preliminary examination.13 In 1931, he joined Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten, a paramilitary organization that was absorbed into the Nazi Sturmabteilung ('Storm Detachment'; SA) in 1934.1415 He spent the summer of 1933 studying at the University of Vienna,16 and earned his PhD in anthropology from the University of Munich in 1935,17 studying for four years under Theodor Mollison [de], a physical anthropologist and proponent of the pseudoscience of scientific racism. Mengele's dissertation, titled Rassenmorphologische Untersuchung des vorderen Unterkieferabschnittes bei vier rassischen Gruppen ("Racial morphological study of the anterior segment of the mandible in four racial groups"), attempted to prove that measurements of the lower jaw could be used to determine race.18

In January 1937, he joined the Institute for Hereditary Biology and Racial Hygiene in Frankfurt, where he worked for Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, a German geneticist with a particular interest in researching twins.19 As Verschuer's assistant, Mengele focused on the genetic factors that result in a cleft lip and palate, or a cleft chin.20 His thesis on the subject earned him a cum laude doctorate in medicine (MD) from the University of Frankfurt in 1937.2122 In a letter of recommendation, Verschuer praised Mengele's reliability and his ability to verbally present complex material clearly.2324 In 1938, he hired him as a permanent assistant at his institute. As part of his duties, he assessed the racial heritage of applicants for the Aryan certificate, a document required before a person could qualify for government jobs or German citizenship.25

On 28 July 1939, Mengele married Irene Schönbein, whom he had met while working as a medical resident in Leipzig.26 Their only child, a son they named Rolf, was born in 1944.27

Military career

Mengele joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and the Schutzstaffel (SS) in 1938. He received basic training in 1938 with the Gebirgsjäger (mountain light infantry) and was called up for service in the Wehrmacht (Nazi armed forces) in June 1940, some months after the outbreak of World War II. He soon volunteered for medical service in the Waffen-SS, the combat arm of the SS, where he served with the rank of SS-Untersturmführer (second lieutenant) in a medical reserve battalion until November 1940. He was next assigned to the SS Race and Settlement Main Office in Poznań, where one of his assignments was evaluating candidates for Germanization.2829

At the end of 1940, Mengele was assigned to the engineering battalion of the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking, first as an assistant medical officer and as primary medical officer from October 1941.30 His unit was sent to the Ulm area for training in April 1941 and were eventually sent to an area southeast of Lublin to await the commencement of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The unit crossed into Ukraine on 30 June. On 2 July, the commander of the division's Westland Regiment was killed by a sniper. In response, members of the Wiking Division killed several thousand Jews. This was the beginning of a pogrom by the Wiking Division that continued into Zolochiv and nearby areas until 4 July. German historian Kai Struve estimates the total number of Jewish civilians killed by the Wiking Division in their first week of action during Barbarossa was 4,280 to 6,950 people. Historian David G. Marwell states that while Mengele did not participate in these killings, he must have known what was taking place.31 Mengele was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class on 14 July for bravery.32 The unit continued to see action in Ukraine and Russia as part of Case Blue (June to November 1942) and was ordered to move towards Stalingrad in late December.33

After rescuing two German soldiers from a burning tank, he was decorated with the Iron Cross 1st Class, the Wound Badge in Black, and the Medal for the Care of the German People. He was declared unfit for further active service in mid-1942, when he was seriously wounded in action near Rostov-on-Don. Following his recovery, he was transferred to the headquarters of the SS Race and Settlement Main Office in Berlin. He was promoted to the rank of SS-Hauptsturmführer (captain) in April 1943.343536 For four months in early 1943, he also worked as an assistant to Verschuer, who was now at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics in Berlin.37

Auschwitz

In 1942, Auschwitz II-Birkenau, originally intended to house slave laborers, began to be used instead as a combined labour camp and extermination camp.3839 Prisoners were transported there by rail from all over Nazi-controlled Europe, arriving in daily convoys.40 By July 1942, SS doctors were conducting selections where incoming Jews were segregated, and those considered able to work were admitted into the camp while those deemed unfit for labor were immediately murdered in the gas chambers.41 Those selected to be killed, about three-quarters of the total,42 included almost all children, women with small children, pregnant women, all the elderly, and all of those who appeared (in a brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor) to be not completely fit and healthy.4344

In early 1943, Verschuer encouraged Mengele to apply for a transfer to the concentration camp service.4546 Mengele's application was accepted and he was posted to Auschwitz in May 1943,47 where he was appointed by SS-Standortarzt Eduard Wirths, chief medical officer at Auschwitz, to the position of chief physician of the Romani family camp at Auschwitz II-Birkenau.4849 The SS doctors did not administer treatment to the Auschwitz inmates but supervised the activities of inmate doctors who had been forced to work in the camp medical service.50 As part of his duties, Mengele was one of the doctors who made weekly visits to the hospital barracks and ordered any prisoners who had not recovered after two weeks in bed to be sent to the gas chambers.51

Mengele's work also involved carrying out selections of new arrivals, sorting new arrivals into those who would be admitted to the camp from those who would be killed immediately. He would sometimes visit the selection ramp when not on duty in the hope of locating sets of twins for his experiments.52 He also looked for physicians, pharmacists, and other medical professionals who could potentially assist him in his research.53 In contrast to most of the other SS doctors, who viewed selections as one of their most stressful and unpleasant duties, he undertook the task with a flamboyant air, often smiling or whistling.5455 He was one of the SS doctors responsible for supervising the administration of Zyklon B, the cyanide-based pesticide that was used for the mass killings in the Birkenau gas chambers. He served in this capacity at the gas chambers located in crematoria IV and V.56

When a typhus epidemic began in the women's camp, Mengele cleared one block of six hundred Jewish women and sent them to be killed in the gas chambers. The building was then cleaned and disinfected, and the occupants of a neighboring block were bathed, deloused, and given new clothing before being moved into the clean block. This process was repeated until all of the barracks were disinfected. Similar killings and disinfections were used for later epidemics of scarlet fever, measles, and other diseases.57 For these actions, Mengele was awarded the War Merit Cross (Second Class with swords) and was promoted in 1944 to First Physician of the Birkenau subcamp.58

Human experimentation and research

See also: Nazi human experimentation

Mengele used Auschwitz as an opportunity to continue his anthropological studies and research into heredity, using inmates for medical experimentation.59 For this purpose, he set up his research facility in the Romani family camp.60 He was particularly interested in identical twins, people with heterochromia iridum (eyes of two different colors), dwarves, and people with physical abnormalities.61 He also studied blood proteins, did anthropological studies of the Romani population, and collected specimens for forwarding to the SS Medical Academy in Graz.62 A grant was provided by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft ('German Research Foundation'), at the request of Verschuer, who received regular reports and shipments of specimens from Mengele. The grant was used to build a pathology laboratory attached to Crematorium II at Auschwitz II-Birkenau.63 Miklós Nyiszli, who was forced to work on Mengele's behalf due to his pathologist background, prepared specimens and performed autopsies for this laboratory.6465

When an outbreak of noma—a gangrenous bacterial disease of the mouth and face—struck the Romani camp in 1943, Mengele initiated a study to determine the cause of the disease and develop a treatment. He enlisted the assistance of prisoner Berthold Epstein, a Jewish pediatrician and professor at Prague University. The patients were isolated in separate barracks.6667 The treatment involved administering vitamins and antibiotics to afflicted children, who saw significant improvement. However, once he was satisfied that it was effective, he discontinued treatment, and the children immediately fell ill again.68 The preserved heads and organs of several afflicted children were sent to the SS Medical Academy in Graz and other facilities for study.6970 This research was still ongoing when the Romani camp was liquidated and its remaining occupants murdered in 1944.71

In his search for genetic markers to indicate race, Verschuer had Mengele provide him with blood samples from around 200 racially diverse Auschwitz prisoners. The hypothesis was that each race had unique proteins that could be identified by laboratory testing. Most of the documentation from these experiments has not survived.72

Twin research was of particular interest to Mengele. One twin could serve as a subject with the other as the control.73 Mengele viewed the opportunity to undertake twin research at Auschwitz as unique, as it is normally difficult to locate and study a significant number of subjects.74 Most of the twins he studied were children between the ages of two and sixteen. Historian Nikolaus Wachsmann estimates Mengele may have studied as many as a thousand sets of twins. Some were siblings who passed themselves off as twins to avoid being killed.75 The research largely involved taking dozens of physical measurements and recording the characteristics of various anatomical features. Each examination could take several hours.76 Mengele generally ordered the twins to undertake weekly physical examinations.77 Nyiszli and others suggested that twin studies may have been pursued to uncover strategies for 'racially desirable' Germans to produce more twins.7879 The actual purpose of Mengele's twin research is unknown.80

In his 1945 deposition, Nyiszli testified that he watched Mengele kill 14 twins in a single night, first by injecting evipan to induce sleep, and then injecting their hearts with chloroform.81 Nyiszli described it differently in his book; there, he said that he smelled chloroform in the hearts of twins he dissected. He added that he feared Mengele might have him killed for knowing this secret.82

Mengele's research subjects were better fed and housed than the other prisoners, and temporarily spared from the gas chambers.83 His research subjects lived in their own barracks, where they were provided with a marginally better quality of food and somewhat improved living conditions than the other areas of the camp.84 When visiting his young subjects, he offered them sweets. Some children referred to him as "Uncle Mengele".85

A former Auschwitz inmate doctor said of Mengele:

He was capable of being so kind to the children, to have them become fond of him, to bring them sugar, to think of small details in their daily lives, and to do things we would genuinely admire ... And then, next to that, ... the crematoria smoke, and these children, tomorrow or in a half-hour, he is going to send them there. Well, that is where the anomaly lay.86

Mengele's eye research involved introducing chemicals or hormones into the eyes of subjects. Although there has been speculation that Mengele was attempting to "Aryanize" prisoners' eyes by making them blue with dyes or other chemicals, this idea has been rejected by Marwell. He argues that Mengele would not be interested in a "cosmetic change" with "no genetic meaning".87 According to Marwell, Mengele was most likely administering adrenaline drops into the eyes of subjects while researching the condition heterochromia (color differences of the iris), as part of his collaboration with biologist and eugenicist Karin Magnussen, who carried out Reich-funded research on eye color at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology in Berlin. Magnussen was testing whether drugs or hormones such as adrenaline could alter pigmentation of the eyes of rabbits, as well as studying the anatomy of the eye and the genetics underlying heterochromia.88

Mengele's collaboration with Magnussen also included compiling genealogical records and documenting the eye characteristics of prisoners.89 He sent eyes removed from Auschwitz prisoners to her lab in Berlin for histological study. After the war, Magnussen stated she believed that the specimens were from prisoners who had died of natural causes.90 The inmate pathologist, Nyiszli, said that some of the samples were from the bodies of people who had been killed by lethal injection.91

Myths and apocryphal anecdotes

Some testimonies regarding Mengele have been rejected or challenged by historians, including the claim that Mengele sewed two twins together to create conjoined twins.92 Agnieszka Kita, a historian at the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, has described this as a myth.93 Marwell has rejected other stories about Mengele, including the suggestion that he surgically "connected the urinary tract of a 7-year-old girl to her own colon", or that he attempted to "make boys into girls and girls into boys" using "cross transfusions", or that he attempted to change people's eye color.94

After Auschwitz

Along with several other Auschwitz doctors, Mengele transferred to Gross-Rosen concentration camp in Lower Silesia on 17 January 1945, taking with him two boxes of specimens and the records of his experiments at Auschwitz. Most of the camp medical records had already been destroyed by the SS9596 by the time the Red Army liberated Auschwitz on 27 January.97 He was assigned as SS garrison physician on 5 February, but the camp was evacuated shortly thereafter, as the Soviet army arrived on 13 February. He and other camp personnel may have moved at this time to Reichenau concentration camp, located near Rychnov u Jablonce nad Nisou, or to one of the other Gross-Rosen subcamps.98 He later traveled westward to Žatec in Czechoslovakia, where he became part of a field hospital unit, which meant he could wear the uniform of a Wehrmacht officer rather than his SS uniform.99 He temporarily entrusted his incriminating documents to a nurse with whom he had struck up a relationship.100 He and his unit then hurried west to avoid being captured by the Soviets, but were taken prisoners of war by the Americans in June 1945. Although Mengele was initially registered under his own name, he was not identified as being on the major war criminal list due to the disorganization of the Allies regarding the distribution of wanted lists, and the fact that he did not have the usual SS blood group tattoo.101 He had also developed a convincing backstory that did not include his SS background or his service at Auschwitz.102 He was released by the US military authorities at the end of July and obtained a false clearance certificate under the name "Fritz Ulmann", which he later altered to read "Fritz Hollmann".103104

After several months on the run, including a trip back to the Soviet-occupied area to recover his Auschwitz records, Mengele found work near Rosenheim as a farmhand.105 He was in contact with members of his family, including his brother and his wife, who pretended to outsiders that he was dead and talked to him about getting a divorce.106 He left Germany on 17 April 1949,107108 convinced that his capture would mean a trial and death sentence. Assisted by a network of former SS members, he used the ratline to travel to Genoa, where he obtained a passport from the International Committee of the Red Cross under the alias "Helmut Gregor", and sailed to Argentina in July 1949.109 His wife refused to accompany him, and they divorced by proxy in Düsseldorf in 1954.110111

In South America

Mengele worked as a carpenter in Buenos Aires, Argentina, while lodging in a boarding house in the suburb of Vicente López.112 After a few weeks, he moved to the house of a Nazi sympathizer in the neighborhood of Florida Este. He next worked as a salesman for his family's farm equipment company, Karl Mengele & Sons, and in 1951, he began making frequent trips to Paraguay as a regional sales representative.113 He moved into an apartment in central Buenos Aires in 1953, used family funds to buy a part interest in a carpentry concern, and then rented a house in the suburb of Olivos in 1954.114 Files released by the Argentine government in 1992 indicate that Mengele may have practiced medicine without a license while living in Buenos Aires, including performing abortions.115

After obtaining a copy of his birth certificate through the West German embassy in 1956, Mengele was issued an Argentine foreign residence permit under his real name. He used this document to obtain a West German passport using his real name and embarked on a trip to Europe.116117 He met with his son Rolf (who was told Mengele was his "Uncle Fritz")118 and his widowed sister-in-law Martha, for a ski holiday in Switzerland; he also spent a week in his home town of Günzburg.119120 When he returned to Argentina in September 1956, Mengele applied for and received an Argentinian identity card under the name José Mengele, a variation of his real name.121 Martha and her son Karl Heinz followed about a month later, and the three began living together. Josef and Martha were married in 1958 while on holiday in Uruguay, and they bought a house in Buenos Aires.122123 Mengele's business interests now included part ownership of Fadro Farm, a pharmaceutical company.124 Along with several other doctors, he was questioned in 1958 on suspicion of practicing medicine without a license when a teenage girl died after an abortion, but he was released without charge. Aware that the publicity could lead to his Nazi background and wartime activities being discovered, he took an extended business trip to Paraguay on a 90-day visitor's permit issued 2 October 1958.125 He returned to Buenos Aires several times to settle his business affairs and visit his family. Martha and Karl lived in a boarding house in the city until December 1960, when they returned to West Germany.126 They later lived in Switzerland and Italy.127

Mengele's name was mentioned several times during the Nuremberg trials in the mid-1940s, but the Allied forces believed that he was probably already dead.128 Irene Mengele and the family in Günzburg also claimed that he had died.129 Meanwhile, author Ernst Schnabel was forwarded a letter from a woman who read his 1958 book Anne Frank: A Portrait in Courage. She said a maid in the Mengele household had been told by Herr Mengele that his son was in South America, working as a doctor. Schnabel wrote to the state prosecutor in Ulm to pass along this information.130 The court in Freiburg issued an arrest warrant on 25 February 1959.131

Working in West Germany, Nazi hunters Simon Wiesenthal and Hermann Langbein collected information from witnesses about Mengele's wartime activities. In a search of the public records, Langbein discovered Mengele's divorce papers, which listed an address in Buenos Aires. He and Wiesenthal pressured the West German authorities into starting extradition proceedings, and a second, revised arrest warrant that included data about Mengele's wartime activities was drawn up on 5 June 1959.132133134 West Germany also offered a reward for Mengele's capture.135 Argentina initially refused the extradition request because the fugitive was no longer living at the address given on the documents; by the time extradition was approved on 30 June, Mengele had already fled to Paraguay and was living on a farm in Hohenau, near the Argentine border.136137 Mengele reportedly worked as a veterinary surgeon under the alias of 'Francisco Fischer' while living in Hohenau.138

In preparation for leaving Argentina, Mengele sold his shares of the Fadro Farm in March 1959 and granted Martha power of attorney to act on his behalf in legal matters. He made the move to Paraguay sometime before May 1959 and received his citizenship under the name José Mengele.139 The extralegal capture of Adolf Eichmann in May 1960 meant that Paraguay's lack of any extradition treaties could no longer keep him safe. He decided to move to Brazil and live under an assumed name. With the help of Hans-Ulrich Rudel, he obtained an identity card with the name "Peter Hochbichler", and arrived in Brazil in October 1960.140

After a request from Paraguayan Attorney General Clotildo Jimenez, the Supreme Court of Paraguay annulled Mengele's citizenship in August 1979.141

Mengele stayed temporarily with Nazi supporter Wolfgang Gerhard, who helped Mengele cross the border into Brazil, on his farm near São Paulo. In 1961, he relocated Mengele with Hungarian expatriates Géza and Gitta Stammer on their farm in Nova Europa. With the help of an investment from Mengele, the three bought a coffee and cattle farm in Serra Negra in 1962, with Mengele owning a half interest.142 Gerhard had initially told the Stammers that the fugitive's name was "Peter Hochbichler", but they discovered his true identity in 1963. Gerhard persuaded the couple not to report Mengele's location to the authorities by convincing them that they themselves could be implicated for harboring a fugitive.143

Efforts by Mossad

In May 1960, Isser Harel, director of the Israeli intelligence agency Mossad, personally led the successful effort to capture Eichmann in Buenos Aires. He was hoping to track down Mengele so that he, too, could be brought to trial in Israel.144 Under interrogation, Eichmann provided the address of a boarding house that had been used as a safe house for Nazi fugitives. Surveillance of the house did not reveal Mengele or any members of his family, and the neighborhood postman claimed that although Mengele had recently been receiving letters there under his real name, he had since relocated without leaving a forwarding address. Harel's inquiries at a machine shop where Mengele had been a part owner also failed to generate any leads, so he was forced to abandon the search.145

In February 1961, West Germany widened its extradition request to include Brazil, having been tipped off by Wiesenthal to the possibility that Mengele had relocated there.146147 Meanwhile, Zvi Aharoni, one of the Mossad agents who had been involved in the Eichmann capture, was placed in charge of a team of agents tasked with tracking down Mengele and bringing him to trial in Israel. Their inquiries in Paraguay revealed no clues to his whereabouts, and they were unable to intercept any correspondence between Mengele and his wife, Martha, who by this time was living in Italy. Agents who were following Rudel's movements also failed to produce any leads.148 Aharoni and his team followed Gerhard to a rural area near São Paulo, where they identified a European man whom they believed to be Mengele.149 This potential breakthrough was reported to Harel, but the logistics of staging a capture, the budgetary constraints of the search operation, and the priority of focusing on Israel's deteriorating relationship with Egypt led the Mossad chief to call off the manhunt in 1962.150151

In 1964, Meir Amit, the new head of the Mossad, authorized a clandestine search of Martha Mengele's apartment in Bavaria. When they finally searched the premises in 1966, they found nothing to indicate she was currently in contact with Mengele. They tried again in May 1967, but again learned nothing specific. However, the contents of conversations monitored in Martha's home led them to believe that the two were still communicating. They decided to enlist the aid of Martha's boyfriend, a dentist named Siegfried Pereda. An Israeli agent posing as a patient visited his workplace to enlist his aid, but this line of inquiry produced no results either. The Mossad removed the listening devices from Martha's home on 27 October 1967, and an order calling for reduced efforts to catch Nazi war criminals was passed in Israel on 31 December 1968. No further investigations took place until 1977, when the government of Menachem Begin decided to resume the hunt for Nazis, and Mengele in particular. Operations included installing listening devices in the home of Mengele's son Rolf as well as contacting him in person to try to trick him into revealing his father's whereabouts, but again they obtained no information.152

Later life and death

In 1969, Mengele and the Stammers jointly purchased a farmhouse in Caieiras, with Mengele as half-owner.153 When Wolfgang Gerhard returned to Germany in 1971 to seek medical treatment for his ailing wife and son, he gave his identity card to Mengele.154 The Stammers' friendship with Mengele deteriorated in late 1974, and when they bought a house in São Paulo, he was not invited to join them.155 The Stammers later bought a bungalow in the Eldorado neighborhood of Diadema, São Paulo, which they rented out to Mengele.156 Rolf, who had not seen his father since the ski holiday in 1956, visited him at the bungalow in 1977; he found an "unrepentant Nazi" who claimed he had never personally harmed anyone and only carried out his duties as an officer.157

Mengele's health had been steadily deteriorating since 1972. He suffered a stroke in 1976,158 experienced high blood pressure, and developed an ear infection which affected his balance. On 7 February 1979, while visiting his friends Wolfram and Liselotte Bossert in the coastal resort of Bertioga,159 Mengele had a second stroke while swimming and drowned.160 His body was buried in Our Lady of the Rosary cemetery in Embu das Artes under the name "Wolfgang Gerhard",161 whose identification Mengele had been using since 1971.162 Other aliases used by Mengele in his later life included "Dr. Fausto Rindón" and "S. Josi Alvers Aspiazu".163

Exhumation

Sightings of Mengele were being reported all over the world in the decades following the war. Wiesenthal claimed to have information that placed Mengele on the Greek island of Kythnos in 1960,164 in Cairo in 1961,165 in Spain in 1971,166 and in Paraguay in 1978, eighteen years after he had left the country.167 He insisted as late as 1985 that Mengele was still alive—six years after he had died—having previously offered a reward of US$100,000 (equivalent to $300,000 in 2024) in 1982 for the fugitive's capture.168 Worldwide interest in the case was heightened by a mock trial held in Jerusalem in February 1985, featuring the testimonies of over one hundred victims of Mengele's experiments. Shortly afterwards, the West German, Israeli, and U.S. governments launched a coordinated effort to determine Mengele's whereabouts. The West German and Israeli governments offered rewards for his capture, as did The Washington Times and the Simon Wiesenthal Center.169

On 31 May 1985, acting on intelligence received by the West German prosecutor's office, police raided the house of Hans Sedlmeier, a lifelong friend of Mengele and sales manager of the family firm in Günzburg.170 They found a coded address book and copies of letters sent to and received from Mengele. Among the papers was a letter from Wolfram Bossert notifying Sedlmeier of Mengele's death.171 German authorities alerted the police in São Paulo, who then contacted the Bosserts. Under interrogation, they revealed the location of Mengele's grave172 and the remains were exhumed on 6 June 1985. Extensive forensic examination indicated with a high degree of probability that the body was indeed that of Josef Mengele.173 Rolf Mengele stated on 10 June confirming that the body was his father's and that news of his father's death had been concealed to protect people who had sheltered him.174

In 1992, DNA testing confirmed Mengele's identity beyond doubt,175 but family members refused repeated requests by Brazilian officials to repatriate the remains to Germany.176 The skeleton is stored at the São Paulo Institute for Forensic Medicine, where it is used as an educational aid during forensic medicine courses at the University of São Paulo's medical school.177

Later developments

In 2007, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum received as a donation the Höcker Album, an album of photographs of Auschwitz staff taken by Karl-Friedrich Höcker. Eight of the photographs include Mengele.178 In February 2010, a 180-page volume of Mengele's diary was sold by Alexander Autographs at auction for an undisclosed sum to the grandson of a Holocaust survivor. The unidentified previous owner, who acquired the journals in Brazil, was reported to be close to the Mengele family. A Holocaust survivors' organization described the sale as "a cynical act of exploitation aimed at profiting from the writings of one of the most heinous Nazi criminals".179 Rabbi Marvin Hier of the Simon Wiesenthal Center was glad to see the diary fall into Jewish hands, calling the acquisition significant.180 In 2011 (centenary of Mengele's birth), a further 31 volumes of Mengele's diaries were sold—again amidst protests—by the same auction house to an undisclosed collector of World War II memorabilia for US$245,000.181

Publications

  • Rassenmorphologische Untersuchung des vorderen Unterkieferabschnittes bei vier rassischen Gruppen ("Racial morphological study of the anterior segment of the mandible in four racial groups"). This dissertation, completed in 1935 and first published in 1937, earned him a PhD in anthropology from Munich University. In this work, Mengele sought to demonstrate that there were structural differences in the lower jaws of individuals from different ethnic groups, and that racial distinctions could be made based on these differences.182183
  • Genealogical Studies in the Cases of Cleft Lip-Jaw-Palate (1938), his medical dissertation, earned him a doctorate in medicine from Frankfurt University. Studying the influence of genetics as a factor in the occurrence of this deformity, Mengele conducted research on families who exhibited these traits in multiple generations. The work also included notes on other abnormalities found in these family lines.184185
  • Hereditary Transmission of Fistulae Auris. This journal article, published in Der Erbarzt ('The Genetic Physician'), focuses on fistula auris (an abnormal fissure on the external ear) as a hereditary trait. Mengele noted that individuals who have this trait also tend to have a dimple on their chin.186

See also

Informational notes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Josef Mengele. Wikiquote has quotations related to Josef Mengele.

References

  1. Encyclopedia Britannica 2025. - Encyclopedia Britannica (9 May 2025). "Josef Mengele". britannica.com. Retrieved 26 May 2025. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josef-Mengele ↩

  2. New arrivals that were judged able to work were admitted into the camp, while those deemed unsuitable for labor were sent to the gas chambers.[3] ↩

  3. Gopnik 2020. - Gopnik, Adam (15 June 2020). "Revisiting Mengele's Malignant "Race Science"". The New Yorker. Retrieved 1 January 2023. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/06/22/revisiting-mengeles-malignant-race-science ↩

  4. Astor 1985, p. 12. - Astor, Gerald (1985). Last Nazi: Life and Times of Dr Joseph Mengele. New York: Donald I. Fine. ISBN 978-0-917657-46-7. https://archive.org/details/lastnazilifetime00asto ↩

  5. Posner & Ware 1986, pp. 4–5. - Posner, Gerald L.; Ware, John (1986). Mengele: The Complete Story. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050598-8. https://archive.org/details/mengelecompletes00posn ↩

  6. Marwell 2020, pp. 4–5. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  7. Posner & Ware 1986, pp. 6–7. - Posner, Gerald L.; Ware, John (1986). Mengele: The Complete Story. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050598-8. https://archive.org/details/mengelecompletes00posn ↩

  8. Marwell 2020, p. 5. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  9. Marwell 2020, p. 7. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  10. Kubica 1998, p. 318. - Kubica, Helena (1998) [1994]. "The Crimes of Josef Mengele". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 317–337. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 ↩

  11. Kershaw 2008, p. 81. - Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6. ↩

  12. Marwell 2020, p. 13. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  13. US Justice Department 1992. - "In the Matter of Josef Mengele: A Report to the Attorney General of the United States" (PDF). US Department of Justice, Office of Special Investigations Criminal Division. October 1992. p. 208. Retrieved 24 June 2022. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/criminal-hrsp/legacy/2011/06/06/10-30-92mengele-exhibits.pdf ↩

  14. Kubica 1998, p. 318. - Kubica, Helena (1998) [1994]. "The Crimes of Josef Mengele". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 317–337. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 ↩

  15. Posner & Ware 1986, pp. 8, 10. - Posner, Gerald L.; Ware, John (1986). Mengele: The Complete Story. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050598-8. https://archive.org/details/mengelecompletes00posn ↩

  16. Marwell 2020, pp. 15–16. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  17. Kubica 1998, p. 318. - Kubica, Helena (1998) [1994]. "The Crimes of Josef Mengele". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 317–337. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 ↩

  18. Marwell 2020, p. 19. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  19. Kubica 1998, p. 318. - Kubica, Helena (1998) [1994]. "The Crimes of Josef Mengele". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 317–337. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 ↩

  20. Weindling 2002, p. 53. - Weindling, Paul (2002). "The Ethical Legacy of Nazi Medical War Crimes: Origins, Human Experiments, and International Justice". In Burley, Justine; Harris, John (eds.). A Companion to Genethics. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 53–69. doi:10.1002/9780470756423.ch5. ISBN 978-0-631-20698-9. https://archive.org/details/companiontogenet0000unse/page/53 ↩

  21. Allison 2011, p. 52. - Allison, Kirk C. (2011). "Eugenics, race hygiene, and the Holocaust: Antecedents and consolidations". In Friedman, Jonathan C (ed.). Routledge History of the Holocaust. Milton Park; New York: Taylor & Francis. pp. 45–58. ISBN 978-0-415-77956-2. ↩

  22. Mengele's degrees from the University of Munich and the University of Frankfurt were revoked by the issuing universities in the 1960s.[20][21] ↩

  23. Lifton 1986, p. 340. - Lifton, Robert Jay (1986). The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04905-9. https://archive.org/details/nazidoctorsmedic0000lift ↩

  24. The American author Robert Jay Lifton notes that Mengele's published works were in keeping with the scientific mainstream of the time, and would probably have been viewed as valid scientific efforts even outside Nazi Germany.[22] /wiki/Robert_Jay_Lifton ↩

  25. Marwell 2020, p. 35. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  26. Posner & Ware 1986, p. 11. - Posner, Gerald L.; Ware, John (1986). Mengele: The Complete Story. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050598-8. https://archive.org/details/mengelecompletes00posn ↩

  27. Posner & Ware 1986, p. 54. - Posner, Gerald L.; Ware, John (1986). Mengele: The Complete Story. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050598-8. https://archive.org/details/mengelecompletes00posn ↩

  28. Posner & Ware 1986, p. 16. - Posner, Gerald L.; Ware, John (1986). Mengele: The Complete Story. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050598-8. https://archive.org/details/mengelecompletes00posn ↩

  29. Kubica 1998, pp. 318–319. - Kubica, Helena (1998) [1994]. "The Crimes of Josef Mengele". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 317–337. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 ↩

  30. Marwell 2020, pp. 45–46. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  31. Marwell 2020, pp. 45–51. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  32. Marwell 2020, p. 51. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  33. Marwell 2020, pp. 52–56. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

  34. Kubica 1998, p. 319. - Kubica, Helena (1998) [1994]. "The Crimes of Josef Mengele". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 317–337. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 ↩

  35. Posner & Ware 1986, pp. 16–18. - Posner, Gerald L.; Ware, John (1986). Mengele: The Complete Story. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050598-8. https://archive.org/details/mengelecompletes00posn ↩

  36. Astor 1985, p. 27. - Astor, Gerald (1985). Last Nazi: Life and Times of Dr Joseph Mengele. New York: Donald I. Fine. ISBN 978-0-917657-46-7. https://archive.org/details/lastnazilifetime00asto ↩

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  42. Of the Hungarians who arrived in mid-1944, 85 percent were murdered immediately.[40] ↩

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  111. Blumenthal, June 1985. - Blumenthal, Ralph (11 June 1985). "Investigators Turn Attention to Mengele Family Contacts". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 January 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/11/world/investigators-turn-attention-to-mengele-family-contacts.html ↩

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  115. Nash 1992. - Nash, Nathaniel C. (11 February 1992). "Mengele an Abortionist, Argentine Files Suggest". The New York Times. Retrieved 31 August 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/11/world/mengele-an-abortionist-argentine-files-suggest.html ↩

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  117. Astor 1985, p. 166. - Astor, Gerald (1985). Last Nazi: Life and Times of Dr Joseph Mengele. New York: Donald I. Fine. ISBN 978-0-917657-46-7. https://archive.org/details/lastnazilifetime00asto ↩

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  129. Levy 2006, p. 261. - Levy, Alan (2006) [1993]. Nazi Hunter: The Wiesenthal File (Revised 2002 ed.). London: Constable & Robinson. ISBN 978-1-84119-607-7. ↩

  130. Marwell 2020, pp. 169–171. - Marwell, David G. (2020). Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death". New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-60953-0. ↩

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  136. Levy 2006, pp. 269–270, 272. - Levy, Alan (2006) [1993]. Nazi Hunter: The Wiesenthal File (Revised 2002 ed.). London: Constable & Robinson. ISBN 978-1-84119-607-7. ↩

  137. Brooke 1993. - Brooke, James (1 June 1993). "Hohenau Journal; Sure, Mengele Was at Home Here, but Bormann?". The New York Times. New York. Retrieved 31 May 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/1993/06/01/world/hohenau-journal-sure-mengele-was-at-home-here-but-bormann.html ↩

  138. Gibbs 2024. - Gibbs, Stephen (19 December 2024). "Shadow of Josef Mengele still hangs over his Paraguayan bolthole". The Times. Retrieved 20 December 2024. https://www.thetimes.com/world/latin-america/article/josef-mengele-nazi-war-criminal-paraguay-gssdw3p77 ↩

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  141. Belnap 1979. - Belnap, David F. (10 August 1979). "Mengele Hunt Focuses on Paraguay". Washington Post. Retrieved 20 December 2024. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/08/10/mengele-hunt-focuses-on-paraguay/101ad31d-e3a0-480c-bfea-7b116792ed2a/ ↩

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  143. Levy 2006, pp. 280, 282. - Levy, Alan (2006) [1993]. Nazi Hunter: The Wiesenthal File (Revised 2002 ed.). London: Constable & Robinson. ISBN 978-1-84119-607-7. ↩

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  151. Horovitz 2018. - Horovitz, David (26 January 2018). "Mossad chose not to nab Mengele, didn't hunt down Munich terrorists, book claims". Times of Israel. Retrieved 20 December 2024. https://www.timesofisrael.com/mossad-chose-not-to-nab-mengele-didnt-hunt-down-munich-terrorists-book-claims/ ↩

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  155. Based on entries in Mengele's journals and interviews with his friends, historians such as Gerald Posner and Gerald Astor believe that Mengele had a sexual relationship with Gitta Stammer.[134][135] /wiki/Gerald_Posner ↩

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  159. Evans 2008, p. 746. - Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311671-4. ↩

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  161. Montalbano 1985. - Montalbano, William D. (8 June 1985). "'Gerhard' Was Anxious, Feared Jews: Man Thought to Be Mengele Called Shy". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 12 May 2025. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-06-08-mn-7187-story.html ↩

  162. Blumenthal, July 1985, p. 1. - Blumenthal, Ralph (22 July 1985). "Scientists Decide Brazil Skeleton Is Josef Mengele". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 February 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/22/world/scientists-decide-brazil-skelton-is-josef-mengele.html ↩

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  164. Segev 2010, p. 167. - Segev, Tom (2010). Simon Wiesenthal: The Life and Legends. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-51946-5. https://archive.org/details/simonwiesenthall00toms ↩

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  177. The Guardian 2017. - Staff (11 January 2017). "Nazi doctor Josef Mengele's bones used in Brazil forensic medicine courses". The Guardian. Associated Press. Retrieved 24 August 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/jan/11/josef-mengele-bones-brazil-forensic-medicine ↩

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  179. Oster 2010. - Oster, Marcy (3 February 2010). "Survivor's grandson buys Mengele diary". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 2 February 2014. http://www.jta.org/2010/02/03/news-opinion/united-states/survivors-grandson-buys-mengele-diary ↩

  180. Hier 2010. - Hier, Marvin (2010). "Wiesenthal Center Praises Acquisition of Mengele's Diary". Simon Wiesenthal Center. Archived from the original on 8 May 2017. Retrieved 2 February 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20170508051147/http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=5711859&ct=7985857 ↩

  181. Aderet 2011. - Aderet, Ofer (22 July 2011). "Ultra-Orthodox man buys diaries of Nazi doctor Mengele for $245,000". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 20 May 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20150924163812/http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/ultra-orthodox-man-buys-diaries-of-nazi-doctor-mengele-for-245-000-1.374642 ↩

  182. Kubica 1998, p. 318. - Kubica, Helena (1998) [1994]. "The Crimes of Josef Mengele". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 317–337. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 ↩

  183. Lifton 1986, p. 339. - Lifton, Robert Jay (1986). The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04905-9. https://archive.org/details/nazidoctorsmedic0000lift ↩

  184. Kubica 1998, p. 318. - Kubica, Helena (1998) [1994]. "The Crimes of Josef Mengele". In Gutman, Yisrael; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 317–337. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 ↩

  185. Lifton 1986, pp. 339–340. - Lifton, Robert Jay (1986). The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04905-9. https://archive.org/details/nazidoctorsmedic0000lift ↩

  186. Lifton 1986, p. 340. - Lifton, Robert Jay (1986). The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04905-9. https://archive.org/details/nazidoctorsmedic0000lift ↩