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Homer
Traditional author of the Iliad and Odyssey

Homer, an Ancient Greek poet, is credited with authoring the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, foundational works of ancient Greek literature. The Iliad depicts the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles during the Trojan War, while the Odyssey follows Odysseus's long journey home to Ithaca. Composed in Homeric Greek, these orally transmitted epics shaped Greek culture, inspiring ideals of heroism and honor. The authorship question remains debated, with classical sources portraying Homer as a blind bard from Ionia. Revered by figures like Plato and Dante Alighieri, Homer’s epics continue to influence literature, art, and culture globally.

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Works attributed to Homer

Today, only the Iliad and the Odyssey are associated with the name "Homer". In antiquity, a large number of other works were sometimes attributed to him, including the Homeric Hymns, the Contest of Homer and Hesiod, several epigrams, the Little Iliad, the Nostoi, the Thebaid, the Cypria, the Epigoni, the comic mini-epic Batrachomyomachia ("The Frog–Mouse War"), the Margites, the Capture of Oechalia, and the Phocais. These claims are not considered authentic today and were not universally accepted in the ancient world. As with the multitude of legends surrounding Homer's life, they indicate little more than the centrality of Homer to ancient Greek culture.161718

Ancient biographical traditions

Main article: Ancient accounts of Homer

Some ancient accounts about Homer were established early and repeated often. They include that Homer was blind (taking as self-referential a passage describing the blind bard Demodocus),1920 that he resided at Chios, that he was the son of the river Meles and the nymph Critheïs, that he was a wandering bard, that he composed a varying list of other works (the "Homerica"), that he died either in Ios or after failing to solve a riddle set by fishermen,21 and various explanations for the name "Homer" (Ὅμηρος, Hómēros).22 Another tradition from the time of the Roman emperor Hadrian says Epicaste (daughter of Nestor) and Telemachus (son of Odysseus) were the parents of Homer.2324

The two best-known ancient biographies of Homer are the Life of Homer by the Pseudo-Herodotus and the Contest of Homer and Hesiod.2526

In the early fourth century BC Alcidamas composed a fictional account of a poetry contest at Chalcis with both Homer and Hesiod. Homer was expected to win and answered all of Hesiod's questions and puzzles with ease. Then, each of the poets was invited to recite the best passage from their work. Hesiod selected the beginning of Works and Days: "When the Pleiades born of Atlas [...] all in due season". Homer chose a description of Greek warriors in formation, facing the foe, taken from the Iliad. Though the crowd acclaimed Homer victor, the judge awarded Hesiod the prize; the poet who praised husbandry, he said, was greater than the one who told tales of battles and slaughter.27

History of Homeric scholarship

Main articles: Homeric scholarship and Homeric Question

Ancient

The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to antiquity.282930 Nonetheless, the aims of Homeric studies have changed throughout the millennia.31 The earliest preserved comments on Homer concern his treatment of the gods, which hostile critics such as the poet Xenophanes of Colophon denounced as immoral.32 The allegorist Theagenes of Rhegium is said to have defended Homer by arguing that the Homeric poems are allegories.33 The Iliad and the Odyssey were widely used as school texts in ancient Greek and Hellenistic cultures.343536 They were the first literary works taught to all students.37 The Iliad, particularly its first few books, was far more intently studied than the Odyssey during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.38

As a result of the poems' prominence in classical Greek education, extensive commentaries on them developed to explain parts that were culturally or linguistically difficult.3940 During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many interpreters, especially the Stoics, who believed that Homeric poems conveyed Stoic doctrines, regarded them as allegories, containing hidden wisdom.41 Perhaps partially because of the Homeric poems' extensive use in education, many authors believed that Homer's original purpose had been to educate.42 Homer's wisdom became so widely praised that he began to acquire the image of almost a prototypical philosopher.43 Byzantine scholars such as Eustathius of Thessalonica and John Tzetzes produced commentaries, extensions and scholia to Homer, especially in the twelfth century.4445 Eustathius's commentary on the Iliad alone is massive, sprawling over nearly 4,000 oversized pages in a 21st-century printed version and his commentary on the Odyssey an additional nearly 2,000.46

Modern

In 1488, the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles published in Florence the editio princeps of the Homeric poems.4748 The earliest modern Homeric scholars started with the same basic approaches towards the Homeric poems as scholars in antiquity.495051 The allegorical interpretation of the Homeric poems that had been so prevalent in antiquity returned to become the prevailing view of the Renaissance.52 Renaissance humanists praised Homer as the archetypically wise poet, whose writings contain hidden wisdom, disguised through allegory.53 In Western Europe during the Renaissance, Virgil was more widely read than Homer and Homer was often seen through a Virgilian lens.54

In 1664, contradicting the widespread praise of Homer as the epitome of wisdom, François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac wrote a scathing attack on the Homeric poems, declaring that they were incoherent, immoral, tasteless, and without style, that Homer never existed, and that the poems were hastily cobbled together by incompetent editors from unrelated oral songs.55 Fifty years later, the English scholar Richard Bentley concluded that Homer did exist but that he was an obscure, prehistoric oral poet whose compositions bear little relation to the Iliad and the Odyssey as they have been passed down.56 According to Bentley, Homer "wrote a Sequel of Songs and Rhapsodies, to be sung by himself for small Earnings and good Cheer at Festivals and other Days of Merriment; the Ilias he wrote for men, and the Odysseis for the other Sex. These loose songs were not collected together in the form of an epic Poem till Pisistratus' time, about 500 Years after".57

Giambattista Vico analysed Homer and other ancient writings in his philological treatise The New Science (1744) and concluded that Homer was not one man, but many, or an amalgam of other writers. Vico writes "he was a purely ideal poet who never existed as a particular man" and that "Homer was an idea or a heroic character of Grecian men insofar as they told their histories in song".58

Friedrich August Wolf's Prolegomena ad Homerum, published in 1795, argued that much of the material later incorporated into the Iliad and the Odyssey was originally composed in the tenth century BC in the form of short, separate oral songs,596061 which passed through oral tradition for roughly four hundred years before being assembled into prototypical versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey in the sixth century BC by literate authors.626364 After being written down, Wolf maintained that the two poems were extensively edited, modernized, and eventually shaped into their present state as artistic unities.656667 Wolf and the "Analyst" school, which led the field in the nineteenth century, sought to recover the original, authentic poems that were thought to be concealed by later excrescences.68697071

Within the Analyst school were two camps: proponents of the "lay theory", which held that the Iliad and the Odyssey were put together from a large number of short, independent songs,72 and proponents of the "nucleus theory", which held that Homer had originally composed shorter versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey, which later poets expanded and revised.73 A small group of scholars opposed to the Analysts, dubbed "Unitarians", saw the later additions as superior, the work of a single inspired poet.747576 By around 1830, the central preoccupations of Homeric scholars, dealing with whether or not "Homer" actually existed, when and how the Homeric poems originated, how they were transmitted, when and how they were finally written down, and their overall unity, had been dubbed "the Homeric Question".77

Following World War I, the Analyst school began to fall out of favor among Homeric scholars.78 It did not die out entirely, but it came to be increasingly seen as a discredited dead end.79 Starting in around 1928, Milman Parry and Albert Lord, after they studied folk bards in the Balkans, developed the "Oral-Formulaic Theory" that the Homeric poems were originally composed through improvised oral performances, which relied on traditional epithets and poetic formulas.808182 This theory found very wide scholarly acceptance838485 and explained many previously puzzling features of the Homeric poems, including their unusually archaic language, their extensive use of stock epithets, and their other "repetitive" features.86 Many scholars concluded that the "Homeric Question" had finally been answered.87

Meanwhile, the "Neoanalysts" sought to bridge the gap between the "Analysts" and "Unitarians".8889 The Neoanalysts sought to trace the relationships between the Homeric poems and other epic poems, which have now been lost, but of which modern scholars do possess some patchy knowledge.90 Neoanalysts hold that knowledge of earlier versions of the epics can be derived from anomalies of structure and detail in the surviving versions of the Iliad and Odyssey. These anomalies point to earlier versions of the Iliad in which Ajax played a more prominent role, in which the Achaean embassy to Achilles comprised different characters, and in which Patroclus was mistaken for Achilles by the Trojans. They point to earlier versions of the Odyssey in which Telemachus went in search of news of his father not to Menelaus in Sparta but to Idomeneus in Crete, in which Telemachus met up with his father in Crete and conspired with him to return to Ithaca disguised as the soothsayer Theoclymenus, and in which Penelope recognized Odysseus much earlier in the narrative and conspired with him in the destruction of the suitors.91 Neoanalysts have traditionally reconstructed specific lost poems as sources for the Iliad and Odyssey, but more recent scholarship has sought to reframe such neoanalytical arguments within the oral context of early Greek epic, exploring how the Iliad and Odyssey draw on established mythological traditions in general (such as the story of Achilles' death).9293

Contemporary

Most contemporary scholars, although they disagree on other questions about the genesis of the poems, agree that the Iliad and the Odyssey were not produced by the same author, based on "the many differences of narrative manner, theology, ethics, vocabulary, and geographical perspective, and by the imitative character of certain passages of the Odyssey about the Iliad".94959697 Nearly all scholars agree that the Iliad and the Odyssey are unified poems, in that each poem shows a clear overall design and that they are not merely strung together from unrelated songs.98 It is also generally agreed that each poem was composed mostly by a single author, who probably relied heavily on older oral traditions.99 Nearly all scholars agree that the Doloneia in Book X of the Iliad is not part of the original poem, but rather a later insertion by a different poet.100

Some ancient scholars believed Homer to have been an eyewitness to the Trojan War; others thought he had lived up to 500 years afterwards.101 Contemporary scholars continue to debate the date of the poems.102103104 A long history of oral transmission lies behind the composition of the poems, complicating the search for a precise date.105 At one extreme, Richard Janko has proposed a date for both poems to the eighth century BC based on linguistic analysis and statistics.106107 Barry B. Powell dates the composition of the Iliad and the Odyssey to sometime between 800 and 750 BC, based on the statement from Herodotus, who lived in the late fifth century BC, that Homer lived four hundred years before his own time "and not more" (καὶ οὐ πλέοσι) and on the fact that the poems do not mention hoplite battle tactics, inhumation, or literacy.108

Martin Litchfield West has argued that the Iliad echoes the poetry of Hesiod and that it must have been composed around 660–650 BC at the earliest, with the Odyssey up to a generation later.109110111 He also interprets passages in the Iliad as showing knowledge of historical events that occurred in the ancient Near East during the middle of the seventh century BC, including the destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib in 689 BC and the Sack of Thebes by Ashurbanipal in 664/663 BC.112 At the other extreme, a few American scholars such as Gregory Nagy see "Homer" as a continually evolving tradition, which grew much more stable as the tradition progressed, but which did not fully cease to continue changing and evolving until as late as the middle of the second century BC.113114115

"'Homer" is a name of unknown etymological origin, around which many theories were erected in antiquity. One such linkage was to the Greek ὅμηρος (hómēros 'hostage' or 'surety'). The explanations suggested by modern scholars tend to mirror their position on the overall Homeric Question. Nagy interprets it as "he who fits (the song) together". West has advanced both possible Greek and Phoenician etymologies.116117

Historicity of the Homeric epics and Homeric society

Main article: Historicity of the Iliad

Scholars continue to debate questions such as whether the Trojan War took place – and if so when and where – and to what extent the society depicted by Homer is based on his own or one which was, even at the time of the poems' composition, known only as legends. The Homeric epics are largely set in the east and center of the Mediterranean, with some scattered references to Egypt, Ethiopia and other distant lands, in a warlike society that resembles that of the Greek world slightly before the hypothesized date of the poems' composition.118119120121

In ancient Greek chronology, the sack of Troy was dated to 1184 BC. By the nineteenth century, there was widespread scholarly skepticism that the Trojan War had ever happened and that Troy had even existed, but in 1873 Heinrich Schliemann announced to the world that he had discovered the ruins of Homer's Troy at Hisarlik in modern Turkey. Some contemporary scholars think the destruction of Troy VIIa c. 1220 BC was the origin of the myth of the Trojan War, others that the poem was inspired by multiple similar sieges that took place over the centuries.122

Most scholars now agree that the Homeric poems depict customs and elements of the material world that are derived from different periods of Greek history.123124125 For instance, the heroes in the poems use bronze weapons, characteristic of the Bronze Age in which the poems are set, rather than the later Iron Age during which they were composed;126127128 yet the same heroes are cremated (an Iron Age practice) rather than buried (as they were in the Bronze Age).129130131 In some parts of the Homeric poems, heroes are described as carrying large shields like those used by warriors during the Mycenaean period,132 but, in other places, they are instead described carrying the smaller shields that were commonly used when the poems were written in the early Iron Age.133

In the Iliad 10.260–265, Odysseus is described as wearing a helmet made of boar's tusks. Such helmets were not worn in Homer's time but were commonly worn by aristocratic warriors between 1600 and 1150 BC.134135136

The decipherment of Linear B in the 1950s by Michael Ventris and continued archaeological investigation has increased modern scholars' understanding of the Bronze Age Aegean civilisation, which in many ways resembles the ancient Near East more than the society described by Homer.137 Some aspects of the Homeric world are simply made up;138 for instance, the Iliad 22.145–56 describes two springs run near the city of Troy, one that runs steaming hot and the other that runs icy cold.139 It is here that Hector takes his final stand against Achilles.140 Archaeologists, however, have uncovered no evidence that springs of this description ever actually existed.141

Style and language

Main article: Homeric Greek

The Homeric epics are written in an artificial literary language or "Kunstsprache" only used in epic hexameter poetry. Homeric Greek shows features of multiple regional Greek dialects and periods but is fundamentally based on Ionic Greek, in keeping with the tradition that Homer was from Ionia. Linguistic analysis suggests that the Iliad was composed slightly before the Odyssey and that Homeric formulae preserve features older than other parts of the poems.142143

The poems were composed in unrhymed dactylic hexameters; the ancient Greek metre was quantity-based rather than stress-based.144145 Homer frequently uses set phrases such as epithets ("crafty Odysseus", "rosy-fingered Dawn", "owl-eyed Athena", etc.), Homeric formulae ("and then answered [him/her], Agamemnon, king of men", "when the early-born rose-fingered Dawn came to light", "thus he/she spoke"), simile, type scenes, ring composition and repetition. These habits aid the extemporizing bard and are characteristic of oral poetry. For instance, the main words of a Homeric sentence are generally placed towards the beginning, whereas literate poets like Virgil or Milton use longer and more complicated syntactical structures. Homer then expands on these ideas in subsequent clauses; this technique is called parataxis.146

The so-called "type scenes" (typische Szenen), were named by Walter Arend in 1933. He noted that Homer often, when describing frequently recurring activities such as eating, praying, fighting and dressing, used blocks of set phrases in sequence that were then elaborated by the poet. The "Analyst" school had considered these repetitions as un-Homeric, whereas Arend interpreted them philosophically. Parry and Lord noted that these conventions are found in many other cultures.147148

"Ring composition" or chiastic structure (when a phrase or idea is repeated at both the beginning and end of a story, or a series of such ideas first appears in the order A, B, C ... before being reversed as ... C, B, A) has been observed in the Homeric epics. Opinion differs as to whether these occurrences are a conscious artistic device, a mnemonic aid or a spontaneous feature of human storytelling.149150

Both of the Homeric poems begin with an invocation to the Muse.151 In the Iliad, the poet beseeches her to sing of "the anger of Achilles",152 and in the Odyssey, he asks her to tell of "the man of many ways".153 A similar opening was later employed by Virgil in his Aeneid.154

Textual transmission

The orally transmitted Homeric poems were put into written form at some point between the eighth and sixth centuries BCE. Some scholars believe that they were dictated to a scribe by the poet and that our inherited versions of the Iliad and Odyssey were in origin orally dictated texts.155 Albert Lord noted that the Balkan bards that he was studying revised and expanded their songs in their process of dictating.156 Some scholars hypothesise that a similar process of revision and expansion occurred when the Homeric poems were first written down.157158

Other scholars hold that, after the poems were created in the eighth century, they continued to be orally transmitted with considerable revision until they were written down in the sixth century.159 After textualisation, the poems were each divided into 24 rhapsodes, today referred to as books, and labelled by the letters of the Greek alphabet. Most scholars attribute the book divisions to the Hellenistic scholars of Alexandria, in Egypt.160 Some trace the divisions back further to the Classical period.161 Very few credit Homer himself with the divisions.162

In antiquity, it was widely held that the Homeric poems were collected and organised in Athens in the late sixth century BCE by Pisistratus (died 528/527 BCE), in what subsequent scholars have dubbed the "Peisistratean recension".163164 The idea that the Homeric poems were originally transmitted orally and first written down during the reign of Pisistratus is referenced by the first-century BCE Roman orator Cicero and is also referenced in several other surviving sources, including two ancient Lives of Homer.165 From around 150 BCE, the texts of the Homeric poems found in papyrus fragments exhibit much less variation, and the text seems to have become relatively stable. After the establishment of the Library of Alexandria, Homeric scholars such as Zenodotus of Ephesus, Aristophanes of Byzantium and in particular Aristarchus of Samothrace helped establish a canonical text.166

The first printed edition of Homer was produced in 1488 in Milan, Italy by Demetrios Chalkokondyles. Today scholars use medieval manuscripts, papyri and other sources; some argue for a "multi-text" view, rather than seeking a single definitive text. The nineteenth-century edition of Arthur Ludwich mainly follows Aristarchus's work, whereas van Thiel's (1991, 1996) follows the medieval vulgate. Others, such as Martin West (1998–2000) or T. W. Allen, fall somewhere between these two extremes.167

See also

  • Ancient Greece portal
  • Poetry portal
  • Literature portal

Bibliography

Editions

Texts in Homeric Greek
  • Demetrius Chalcondyles editio princeps, Florence, 1488
  • the Aldine editions (1504 and 1517)
  • 1st ed. with comments, Micyllus and Camerarius, Basel, 1535, 1541 (improved text), 1551 (incl. the Batrachomyomachia)
  • Th. Ridel, Strasbourg, c. 1572, 1588 and 1592.
  • Wolf (Halle, 1794–1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807)
  • Spitzner (Gotha, 1832–1836)
  • Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858)
  • La Roche (Odyssey, 1867–1868; Iliad, 1873–1876, both at Leipzig)
  • Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889–1891; Iliad, 2 vols, 1901 and 1907)
  • W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886–1888; 2nd ed. 1900–1902)
  • William Walter Merry and James Riddell (Odyssey i–xii, 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886)
  • Monro, D. B. (Odyssey xiii–xxiv with appendices, Oxford, 1901)
  • Monro, D. B. and Allen, T. W. (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford)
  • D. B. Monro and T. W. Allen 1917–1920, Homeri Opera (5 volumes: Iliad=3rd edition, Odyssey=2nd edition), Oxford, ISBN 0-19-814528-4, 0-19-814529-2, 0-19-814531-4, 0-19-814532-2, 0-19-814534-9
  • H. van Thiel 1991, Homeri Odyssea, Hildesheim, ISBN 3-487-09458-4, 1996, Homeri Ilias, Hildesheim, ISBN 3-487-09459-2
  • P. von der Mühll 1993, Homeri Odyssea, Munich/Leipzig, ISBN 3-598-71432-7
  • M. L. West 1998–2000, Homeri Ilias (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig, ISBN 3-598-71431-9, 3-598-71435-1
  • M. L. West 2017, Homerus Odyssea, Berlin/Boston, ISBN 3-11-042539-4

Interlinear translations

  • The Iliad of Homer a Parsed Interlinear, Handheldclassics.com (2008) Text, ISBN 978-1-60725-298-6

English translations

Main article: English translations of Homer

This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey:

  • Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985)
    • The Iliad, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ISBN 0-374-52905-1
    • The Odyssey, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) ISBN 0-374-52574-9
  • Robert Fagles (1933–2008)
    • The Iliad, Penguin Classics (1998) ISBN 0-14-027536-3
    • The Odyssey, Penguin Classics (1999) ISBN 0-14-026886-3
  • Stanley Lombardo (b. 1943)
    • Iliad, Hackett Publishing Company (1997) ISBN 0-87220-352-2
    • Odyssey, Hackett Publishing Company (2000) ISBN 0-87220-484-7
    • Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-08-3
    • Odyssey, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-06-7
    • The Essential Homer, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-12-1
    • The Essential Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-10-5
  • Barry B. Powell (b. 1942)
    • Iliad, Oxford University Press (2013) ISBN 978-0-19-932610-5
    • Odyssey, Oxford University PressI (2014) ISBN 978-0-19-936031-4
    • Homer's Iliad and Odyssey: The Essential Books, Oxford University Press (2014) ISBN 978-0-19-939407-4
  • Samuel Butler (1835–1902)
    • The Iliad, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-04-1
    • The Odyssey, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-05-8
  • Emily Wilson (b. 1971)
    • The Odyssey, W. W. Norton (2017) ISBN 978-0-393-08905-9
    • The Iliad, W. W. Norton (2023) ISBN 9781324001805

General works on Homer

Influential readings and interpretations

Commentaries

  • Iliad:
    • P.V. Jones (ed.) 2003, Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations, London ISBN 1-85399-657-2
    • G. S. Kirk (gen. ed.) 1985–1993, The Iliad: A Commentary (6 volumes), Cambridge ISBN 0-521-28171-7, 0-521-28172-5, 0-521-28173-3, 0-521-28174-1, 0-521-31208-6, 0-521-31209-4
    • Joachim Latacz (gen. ed.) 2002, Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868–1913) (6 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig ISBN 3-598-74307-6, ISBN 3-598-74304-1
    • N. Postlethwaite (ed.) 2000, Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Exeter ISBN 0-85989-684-6
    • M. W. Willcock (ed.) 1976, A Companion to the Iliad, Chicago ISBN 0-226-89855-5
  • Odyssey:
    • A. Heubeck (gen. ed.) 1990–1993, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981–1987 in Italian), Oxford ISBN 0-19-814747-3, ISBN 0-19-872144-7, ISBN 0-19-814953-0
    • P. Jones (ed.) 1988, Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Bristol ISBN 1-85399-038-8
    • I. J. F. de Jong (ed.) 2001, A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey, Cambridge ISBN 0-521-46844-2

Dating the Homeric poems

  • Janko, Richard (1982). Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns: Diachronic Development in Epic Diction. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23869-4.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Homer. Wikiquote has quotations related to Homer. English Wikisource has original works by or about: Homer

References

  1. Kirk, Geoffrey S. (2025) [1998]. "Homer". Encyclopædia Britannica. /wiki/Geoffrey_Kirk ↩

  2. "Odysseus: the First Western Man". 16 April 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2024. https://merionwest.com/2021/04/16/odysseus-the-first-western-man/ ↩

  3. Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (2015). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons. p. 445. ISBN 978-1118885956. 978-1118885956 ↩

  4. Miller, D. Gary (2013). Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors: Introduction to the Dialect Mixture in Homer, with Notes on Lyric and Herodotus. Walter de Gruyter. p. 351. ISBN 978-1614512950. Retrieved 23 November 2016. 978-1614512950 ↩

  5. Ahl, Frederick; Roisman, Hanna (1996). The Odyssey Re-formed. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801483356. Retrieved 23 November 2016. 978-0801483356 ↩

  6. Bell, Robert H.; "Homer's humor: laughter in the Iliad", hand 1 (2007), 596. ↩

  7. Rutherford, R. B. (2010). Homer: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-19-980510-5. 978-0-19-980510-5 ↩

  8. Too, Yun Lee (2010). The Idea of the Library in the Ancient World. Oxford University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0199577804. Retrieved 22 November 2016. 978-0199577804 ↩

  9. MacDonald, Dennis R. (1994). Christianizing Homer: The Odyssey, Plato, and the Acts of Andrew. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0195358629. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016. 978-0195358629 ↩

  10. Divine Comedy, Inferno, Canto IV, 86–88 (Longfellow's translation): Him with that falchion in his hand behold, ⁠Who comes before the three, even as their lord. That one is Homer, Poet sovereign; https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Divine_Comedy_(Longfellow_1867)/Volume_1/Canto_5 ↩

  11. Alexander Pope's Preface to his translation of the Iliad:"Homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest invention of any writer whatever. The praise of judgment Virgil has justly contested with him, and others may have their pretensions as to particular excellencies; but his invention remains yet unrivalled. Nor is it a wonder if he has ever been acknowledged the greatest of poets, who most excelled in that which is the very foundation of poetry." https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Iliad_of_Homer_(Pope)/Preface ↩

  12. Latacz, Joachim (1996). Homer, His Art and His World. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472083534. Retrieved 22 November 2016. 978-0472083534 ↩

  13. Croally, Neil; Hyde, Roy (2011). Classical Literature: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN 978-1136736629. Retrieved 23 November 2016. 978-1136736629 ↩

  14. Daisy Dunn (22 January 2020). "Who was Homer?". British Museum. Retrieved 7 March 2024. /wiki/Daisy_Dunn ↩

  15. Wilson, Nigel (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. Routledge. p. 366. ISBN 978-1136788000. Retrieved 22 November 2016.Romilly, Jacqueline de (1985). A Short History of Greek Literature. University of Chicago Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0226143125. Retrieved 22 November 2016.Graziosi 2002, p. 15 978-1136788000978-0226143125 ↩

  16. Kelly, Adrian D. "Homerica". In Finkelberg (2012). doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0606 - Finkelberg, Margalit, ed. (2012). The Homer Encyclopedia. Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781444350302. ISBN 9781405177689. https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444350302 ↩

  17. Graziosi, Barbara; Haubold, Johannes (2005). Homer: The Resonance of Epic. A & C Black. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0715632826. 978-0715632826 ↩

  18. Graziosi 2002, pp. 165–168. - Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Perception of Epic. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809665. https://books.google.com/books?id=vCHsh9QWzLYC ↩

  19. Graziosi 2002, p. 138 - Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Perception of Epic. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809665. https://books.google.com/books?id=vCHsh9QWzLYC ↩

  20. Odyssey, 8:64ff.[full citation needed] /wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include ↩

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