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Historically black colleges and universities
Schools once meant for African Americans

Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) were established before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 primarily to serve African Americans, especially in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era following the American Civil War. Founded initially by Protestant groups, they became key institutions after the 1890 Second Morrill Act mandated segregated states to provide higher education for African Americans. Despite Jim Crow laws barring black students from most colleges, HBCUs contributed significantly to building the African-American middle class. Today, there are 101 HBCUs, producing nearly 20% of African American graduates, including notable alumni like Martin Luther King Jr. and Kamala Harris.

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History

Private institutions

HBCUs established prior to the American Civil War include Cheyney University of Pennsylvania in 1837,18 University of the District of Columbia (then known as Miner School for Colored Girls) in 1851, and Lincoln University in 1854.19 Wilberforce University was also established prior to the American Civil War.20 The university was founded in 1856 via a collaboration between the African Methodist Episcopal Church of Ohio and the predominantly white Methodist Episcopal Church.21

HBCUs were controversial in their early years. At the 1847 National Convention of Colored People and Their Friends, the famed Black orators Frederick Douglass, Henry Highland Garnet, and Alexander Crummell debated the need for such institutions, with Crummell arguing that HBCUs were necessary to provide freedom from discrimination, and Douglass and Garnet arguing that self-segregation would harm the black community. A majority of the convention voted that HBCUs should be supported.

Most HBCUs were established in the South after the American Civil War, often with the assistance of religious missionary organizations based in the North, especially the American Missionary Association. The Freedmen's Bureau played a major role in financing the new schools.2223

Atlanta University – now Clark Atlanta University – was founded on September 19, 1865, as the first HBCU in the Southern United States. Atlanta University was the first graduate institution to award degrees to African Americans in the nation and the first to award bachelor's degrees to African Americans in the South; Clark College (1869) was the nation's first four-year liberal arts college to serve African-American students. The two consolidated in 1988 to form Clark Atlanta University.24 Shaw University, founded December 1, 1865, was the second HBCU to be established in the South. The year 1865 also saw the foundation of Storer College (1865–1955) in Harper's Ferry, West Virginia.25 Storer's former campus and buildings have since been incorporated into Harpers Ferry National Historical Park.26

Some of these universities eventually became public universities with assistance from the government.27

Public institutions

In 1862,28 the federal government's Morrill Act provided for land grant colleges in each state. Educational institutions established under the Morrill Act in the North and West were open to Black Americans. But 17 states, almost all in the South, required their post-Civil war systems to be segregated and excluded Black students from their land grant colleges. In the 1870s, Mississippi, Virginia, and South Carolina each assigned one African American college land-grant status: Alcorn University, Hampton Institute, and Claflin University, respectively.29 In response, Congress passed the second Morrill Act of 1890, also known as the Agricultural College Act of 1890, requiring states to establish a separate land grant college for Black students if they were being excluded from the existing land grant college. Many of the HBCUs were founded by states to satisfy the Second Morrill Act.30 These land grant schools continue to receive annual federal funding for their research, extension, and outreach activities.31

Predominantly Black institutions

Predominantly Black institutions (PBI) are institutions that do not meet the legal definition of HBCUs, but primarily serve African Americans.32 Some examples of PBIs are Georgia State University, Chicago State University, Trinity Washington University, and the Community College of Philadelphia.3334

Sports

In the 1920s and 1930s, historically Black colleges developed a strong interest in athletics. Sports were expanding rapidly at state universities, but very few Black stars were recruited there. Race newspapers hailed athletic success as a demonstration of racial progress. Black schools hired coaches, recruited and featured stellar athletes, and set up their own leagues.3536

Jewish refugees

In the 1930s, many Jewish intellectuals fleeing Europe after the rise of Hitler and anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany following Hitler's elevation to power emigrated to the United States and found work teaching in historically Black colleges.37 In particular, 1933 was a challenging year for many Jewish academics who tried to escape increasingly oppressive Nazi policies,38 particularly after legislation was passed stripping them of their positions at universities.39 Jews looking outside of Germany could not find work in other European countries because of calamities like the Spanish Civil War and general antisemitism in Europe.4041 In the US, they hoped to continue their academic careers, but barring a scant few, found little acceptance in elite institutions in Depression-era America, which also had their own undercurrent of antisemitism.4243

As a result of these phenomena, more than two-thirds of the faculty hired at many HBCUs from 1933 to 1945 had come to the United States to escape from Nazi Germany.44 HBCUs believed the Jewish professors were valuable faculty that would help strengthen their institutions' credibility.45 HBCUs had a firm belief in diversity and giving opportunity no matter the race, religion, or country of origin.46 HBCUs were open to Jews because of their ideas of equal learning spaces. They sought to create an environment where all people felt welcome to study, including women.47

World War II

HBCUs made substantial contributions to the US war effort. One example is Tuskegee University in Alabama, where the Tuskegee Airmen trained and attended classes.4849

Florida's Black junior colleges

After the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision of 1954, the legislature of Florida, with support from various counties, opened eleven junior colleges serving the African-American population. Their purpose was to show that separate but equal education was working in Florida. Prior to this, there had been only one junior college in Florida serving African Americans, Booker T. Washington Junior College, in Pensacola, founded in 1949. The new ones were Gibbs Junior College (1957), Roosevelt Junior College (1958), Volusia County Junior College (1958), Hampton Junior College (1958), Rosenwald Junior College (1958), Suwannee River Junior College (1959), Carver Junior College (1960), Collier-Blocker Junior College (1960), Lincoln Junior College (1960), Jackson Junior College (1961), and Johnson Junior College (1962).

The new junior colleges began as extensions of Black high schools. They used the same facilities and often the same faculty. Some built their own buildings after a few years. After the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 mandated an end to school segregation, the colleges were all abruptly closed. Only a fraction of the students and faculty were able to transfer to the previously all-white junior colleges, where they found, at best, an indifferent reception.50

Since 1965

A reauthorization of the Higher Education Act of 1965 established a program for direct federal grants to HBCUs, to support their academic, financial, and administrative capabilities.5152 Part B specifically provides for formula-based grants, calculated based on each institution's Pell grant eligible enrollment, graduation rate, and percentage of graduates who continue post-baccalaureate education in fields where African Americans are underrepresented. Some colleges with a predominantly Black student body are not classified as HBCUs because they were founded (or opened their doors to African Americans) after the implementation of the Sweatt v. Painter (1950) and Brown v. Board of Education (1954) rulings by the U.S. Supreme Court (the court decisions which outlawed racial segregation of public education facilities) and the Higher Education Act of 1965.

In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed an executive order to distribute adequate resources and funds to strengthen the nation's public and private HBCUs. His executive order created the White House Initiative on historically Black colleges and universities (WHIHBCU), which is a federally funded program that operates within the U.S. Department of Education.53 In 1989, George H. W. Bush continued Carter's pioneering spirit by signing Executive Order 12677, which created the presidential advisory board on HBCUs, to counsel the government and the secretary on the future development of these organizations.54

Starting in 2001, directors of libraries of several HBCUs began discussions about ways to pool their resources and work collaboratively. In 2003, this partnership was formalized as the HBCU Library Alliance, "a consortium that supports the collaboration of information professionals dedicated to providing an array of resources designed to strengthen historically Black colleges and Universities and their constituents."55

In 2015, the Bipartisan Congressional Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) Caucus was established by U.S. Representatives Alma S. Adams and Bradley Byrne. The caucus advocates for HBCUs on Capitol Hill.56 As of May 2022, there are over 100 elected politicians who are members of the caucus.57

Current status

Further information: List of historically Black colleges and universities

Each year, the U.S. Department of Education designates a week in the fall as "National HBCU Week." This week features conferences and events focused on discussing and celebrating HBCUs while also honoring notable scholars and alumni from these institutions.58

As of February 2025, Alabama has the most active HBCUs of any state, with 14.59 North Carolina is second with 11.60

In February 2025, Howard University became the first HBCU to achieve Research One (R1) Carnegie Classification.61

In 2024, some HBCUs experienced a significant increase in applications and enrollment, largely driven by the Supreme Court's landmark decision in June 2023 to end race-based affirmative action at American colleges and universities.6263

A 2024 study by the American Institute for Boys and Men revealed that Black men make up only 26% of HBCU students, down from 38% in 1976. The decline of Black men enrolled in college is also noticeable at non-HBCUs.64

In 2024, the United Negro College Fund released a study showing that HBCUs had a $16.5 billion positive impact on the nation's economy.65

In 2023, the average HBCU 6-year undergraduate graduation rate was 35% while the national average was 64%. Spelman College was the only HBCU above the national average at 74%.66 Also in 2023, 73% of students attending HBCUs were Pell Grant eligible while the national average was 34%.6768 Talladega College had the highest percent of Pell Grant eligible students among HBCUs at 95%.69

Between 2020 and 2021, philanthropist MacKenzie Scott donated a historic $560 million in total to 23 public and private HBCUs, with most of her contributions setting donation records at the institutions she supported.70

In 2015, the share of Black students attending HBCUs had dropped to 9% of the total number of Black students enrolled in degree-granting institutions nationwide. This figure is a decline from the 13% of Black students who enrolled in an HBCU in 2000 and 17% who enrolled in 1980. This is a result of desegregation, rising incomes and increased access to financial aid, which has created more college options for Black students.7172

The percentages of bachelor's and master's degrees awarded to Black students by HBCUs has decreased over time. HBCUs awarded 35% of the bachelor's degrees and 21% of the master's degrees earned by Black students in 1976–77, compared with the 14% and 6% respectively of bachelor's and master's degrees earned by Black students in 2014–15. Additionally, the percentage of Black doctoral degree recipients who received their degrees from HBCUs was lower in 2014–15 (12%) than in 1976–77 (14%).737475

The number of total students enrolled at an HBCU rose by 32% between 1976 and 2015, from 223,000 to 293,000. Total enrollment in degree-granting institutions nationwide increased by 81%, from 11 million to 20 million, in the same period.76

Although HBCUs were originally founded to educate Black students, their diversity has increased over time. In 2015, students who were either White, Hispanic, Asian or Pacific Islander, or Native American made up 22% of total enrollment at HBCUs, compared with 15% in 1976.77

HBCUS may struggle to complete with predominantly White schools in recruiting high-achieving Black students. In an attempt to correct for racial disparities, many predominantly White institutions actively seek out and court high-achieving students of color. These schools may extend scholarships or other incentives to prospective students beyond what HBCUs can offer.78

Racial diversity post-2000

Following the enactment of Civil Rights laws in the 1960s, many educational institutions in the United States that receive federal funding adopted affirmative action to increase their racial diversity. Some historically Black colleges and universities now have non-Black majorities, including West Virginia State University and Bluefield State University, whose student bodies have had large White majorities since the mid-1960s.798081

As many HBCUs have made a concerted effort to maintain enrollment levels and often offer relatively affordable tuition, the percentage of non–African-American enrollment has risen.82838485 The following table highlights HBCUs with high non–African American enrollments:

Racial diversity at HBCUs, 2016–2017 school year86
College nameStatePercentage
AfricanAmericanNon-AfricanAmerican
Bluefield State University87West Virginia892
West Virginia State University88West Virginia892
Kentucky State University89Kentucky4654
University of the District of Columbia90District of Columbia5941
Delaware State University91Delaware6436
Fayetteville State University92North Carolina6040
Winston-Salem State University93North Carolina7129
Elizabeth City State University94North Carolina7624
Xavier University of Louisiana95Louisiana7030
North Carolina A&T State University96North Carolina8020
Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)97Pennsylvania8416

Other HBCUs with relatively high non–African American student populations

According to the U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges 2011 edition, the proportion of White American students at Langston University was 12%; at Shaw University, 12%; at Tennessee State University, 12%; at the University of Maryland Eastern Shore, 12%; and at North Carolina Central University, 10%. The U.S. News & World Report's statistical profiles indicate that several other HBCUs have relatively significant percentages of non–African American student populations consisting of Asian, Hispanic, white American, and foreign students.98

Special academic programs

HBCU libraries have formed the HBCU Library Alliance. That alliance, together with Cornell University, have a joint program to digitize HBCU collections. The project is funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.99 Additionally, more historically Black colleges and universities are offering online education programs. As of November 23, 2010, nineteen historically Black colleges and universities offer online degree programs.100

Intercollegiate sports

See also: List of black college football classics, Black college football national championship, and Black College Football Hall of Fame

NCAA Division I has two historically Black athletic conferences: Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference and Southwestern Athletic Conference. The top football teams from the conferences have played each other in postseason bowl games: the Pelican Bowl (1970s), the Heritage Bowl (1990s), and the Celebration Bowl (2015–present). These conferences are home to all Division I HBCUs except for Hampton University and Tennessee State University. Tennessee State has been a member of the Ohio Valley Conference since 1986, while Hampton left the MEAC in 2018 for the Big South Conference. In 2021, North Carolina A&T State University made the same conference move that Hampton made three years earlier (MEAC to Big South).101 Both Hampton and North Carolina A&T later moved their athletic programs to the Colonial Athletic Association and its technically separate football league of CAA Football; Hampton joined both sides of the CAA in 2022,102 while A&T joined the all-sports CAA in 2022 before joining CAA Football in 2023.103

The mostly HBCU Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association and Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference are part of the NCAA Division II, whereas the HBCU Gulf Coast Athletic Conference is part of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics.104

Notable HBCU alumni

See also the "Notable alumni" sections of each institution's article.

HBCUs have a rich legacy of matriculating many leaders in the fields of business, law, science, education, military service, entertainment, art, and sports.

Modern presidential and federal support

Federal funding for HBCUs has notably increased in recent years. Proper federal support of HBCUs has become more of a key issue in modern U.S. presidential elections.105

In President Barack Obama's eight years in office, he invested more than $4 billion to HBCUs.106

In 2019, President Donald Trump signed a bipartisan bill that permanently invested more than $250 million a year to HBCUs.107

In 2021, President Joe Biden's first year in office, he invested a historic $5.8 billion to support HBCUs.108 In 2022, Biden's administration announced an additional $2.7 billion through his American Rescue Plan.109

In 2025, President Donald Trump signed an executive order establishing the White House Initiative to Promote Excellence and Innovation at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). This initiative is housed within the Executive Office of the President and aims to enhance HBCUs' capacity to deliver a high-quality education.110

HBCU homecomings

Homecoming is a tradition at almost every American college and university, however homecoming has a more unique meaning at HBCUs. Homecoming plays a significant role in the culture and identity of HBCUs. The level of pageantry and local black community involvement (parade participation, business vendors, etc.) helps make HBCU homecomings more distinctive. Due to higher campus traffic and activity, classes at HBCUs are usually cancelled on Friday and Saturday of homecoming.111 Millions of alumni, students, celebrity guests, and visitors attend HBCU homecomings every year. In addition to being a highly cherished tradition and festive week, homecomings generate strong revenue for many black owned businesses and HBCUs. Since 2021, the rise in violence at HBCU homecomings—primarily gun-related and most often perpetrated by individuals unaffiliated with HBCUs—has become a significant concern. 112113114115116

See also

  • United States portal
  • Education portal

Further reading

Primary sources

References

  1. 20 U.S. Code sec.1061, [1] Archived December 20, 2022, at the Wayback Machinehttps://USCode.house.gov For a compact overview of HBCU history, see Walter R. Allen, Joseph O. Jewell, Kimberly A. Griffin, & De'Sha S. Wolf, Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Honoring the Past, Engaging the Present, Touching the Future, 76 Journal of Negro Education, pp. 263–280 (2007). https://USCode.house.gov ↩

  2. Anderson, J.D. (1988). The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935. University of North Carolina Press. ↩

  3. "White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities". U.S. Department of Education. April 11, 2008. Archived from the original on October 5, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20151005211025/http://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/ ↩

  4. Wooten, Melissa E. (2016). In the face of inequality. State Univ of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-5690-4. OCLC 946968175. 978-1-4384-5690-4 ↩

  5. Jones, Brandy. "Predominantly Black Institutions: Pathways to Black Student Educational Attainment" (PDF). Center for Minority Serving Institutions. https://cmsi.gse.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/PBIs.pdf ↩

  6. Harris, Leslie M. (March 26, 2015). "The Long, Ugly History of Racism at American Universities". The New Republic. https://newrepublic.com/article/121382/forgotten-racist-past-american-universities ↩

  7. Marybeth Gasman, Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007). ↩

  8. Marybeth Gasman and Felecia Commodore (eds.), Opportunities and Challenges at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (New York: Palgrave Press, 2014). ISBN 978-1-349-50267-7 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  9. Favors, J. (2020). Shelter in a time of storm: How Black colleges fostered generations of leadership and activism. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-4696-4833-0 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  10. "The story of historically black colleges in the US". BBC News. February 15, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-47234239 ↩

  11. "Despite Obstacles, Black Colleges Are Pipelines to the Middle Class, Study Finds. Here's Its List of the Best". The Chronicle of Higher Education. September 30, 2019. Retrieved February 15, 2022. https://www.chronicle.com/article/despite-obstacles-black-colleges-are-pipelines-to-the-middle-class-study-finds-heres-its-list-of-the-best/ ↩

  12. "African Americans and College Education by the Numbers". UNCF. November 29, 2018. Retrieved July 17, 2021. https://uncf.org/the-latest/african-americans-and-college-education-by-the-numbers ↩

  13. "A look at historically black colleges and universities as Howard turns 150". Pewresearch.org. February 28, 2017. Retrieved October 25, 2017. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/02/28/a-look-at-historically-black-colleges-and-universities-as-howard-turns-150/ ↩

  14. "Historically Black Colleges and Universities – American School Search". American-school-search.com. Retrieved October 25, 2017. https://www.american-school-search.com/colleges/hbcu ↩

  15. Marybeth Gasman, The Changing Face of Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Philadelphia: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions, University of Pennsylvania, 2013. [ISBN missing] /wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources ↩

  16. Casey Boland, Marybeth Gasman et al., Contemporary Public HBCUs: A Four State Comparison, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions, University of Pennsylvania, Spring 2014. [ISBN missing] /wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources ↩

  17. "The Tide That Binds: Learning from Experience at HBCU's". November 8, 2022. https://www.gettingsmart.com/2022/11/08/the-tide-that-binds-learning-from-experience-at-hbcus/ ↩

  18. For detail of the university's early history from its origins as the Institute for Colored Youth, see Milton M. James, The Institute for Colored Youth, 21 Negro History Bulletin p. 83 (1958) ↩

  19. Initially chartered as the Ashmun Institute, it changed its name in 1866. It was the first degree-granting HBCU. See Lincoln University, "History". Archived from the original on May 31, 2019. Retrieved August 11, 2022.. See also Andrew E. Murray, The Founding of Lincoln University, 51 Journal of Presbyterian History p. 392 (1973). https://web.archive.org/web/20190531043729/https://www.lincoln.edu/about/history ↩

  20. Originally proposed as Ohio African University, the founders changed the name to Wilberforce University, to honor the English abolitionist William Wilberforce, before its corporate charter was granted. Frederick Alphonso McGinnis, A History and Interpretation of Wilberforce University p. 33 (1941). See also Charles Killian, Wilberforce University: The Reality of Bishop Payne's Dream, 34 Negro History Bulletin p. 83 (1971). /wiki/William_Wilberforce ↩

  21. Marybeth Gasman, Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).ISBN 978-0-8018-8604-1 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  22. Robert C. Lieberman, "The Freedmen's Bureau and the politics of institutional structure." Social Science History 18.3 (1994): 405–437. ↩

  23. Ronald E. Butchart, "Freedmen's education during reconstruction." New Georgia Encyclopedia 13 (2016): 4-13 online. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/freedmens-education-during-reconstruction ↩

  24. Carrillo, Karen Juanita (2012). African American History Day By Day – A Reference Guide To Events. Abc-Clio. ISBN 978-1-59884-361-3. 978-1-59884-361-3 ↩

  25. Anderson, J.D. (1988). The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935. University of North Carolina Press. ↩

  26. Roy, Lisa (December 18, 2013). "Storer College (1867–1956)". Retrieved December 4, 2020. https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/storer-college-1867-1956/ ↩

  27. Ivory A. Toldson (2016). "The Funding Gap between Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Traditionally White Institutions Needs to be Addressed* (Editor's Commentary)". The Journal of Negro Education. 85 (2): 97. doi:10.7709/jnegroeducation.85.2.0097. JSTOR 10.7709/jnegroeducation.85.2.0097. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7709/jnegroeducation.85.2.0097 ↩

  28. (7 U.S.C. § 301 et seq.) ↩

  29. John W. Davis, The Negro Land-Grant College, 2 Journal of Negro Education p. 312 (1933). ↩

  30. See generally, John W. Davis, The Negro Land-Grant College, 2 Journal of Negro Education (1933). ↩

  31. Casey Boland, Marybeth Gasman et al., Contemporary Public HBCUs: A Four State Comparison, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions, University of Pennsylvania, Spring 2014. [ISBN missing] /wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources ↩

  32. 20 U.S.C. § 1059e /wiki/Title_20_of_the_United_States_Code ↩

  33. Jones, Brandy. "Predominantly Black Institutions: Pathways to Black Student Educational Attainment" (PDF). Center for Minority Serving Institutions. https://cmsi.gse.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/PBIs.pdf ↩

  34. "List of Minority Serving Institutions: 2022" (PDF). Center for Minority Serving Institutions. https://cmsi.gse.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/2022%20MSI%20List.pdf ↩

  35. Miller, Patrick B. (1995). "To "Bring the Race along Rapidly": Sport, Student Culture, and Educational Mission at Historically Black Colleges during the Interwar Years". History of Education Quarterly. 35 (2): 111–33. doi:10.2307/369629. ISSN 0018-2680. JSTOR 369629. S2CID 147170256. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  36. Miller, Patrick B; Wiggins, David Kenneth, eds. (2004). Sport and the color line: black athletes and race relations in twentieth-century America. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94610-0. OCLC 53155353. 978-0-415-94610-0 ↩

  37. "Jewish Prof's and HBCU's – African American Registry". African American Registry. Retrieved October 23, 2018. https://aaregistry.org/story/jewish-profs-and-hbcus/ ↩

  38. Hoch, Paul K. (May 11, 1983). "The reception of central European refugee physicists of the 1930s: USSR, UK, US". Annals of Science. 40 (3): 217–46. doi:10.1080/00033798300200211. ISSN 0003-3790. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  39. Hoch, Paul K. (May 11, 1983). "The reception of central European refugee physicists of the 1930s: USSR, UK, US". Annals of Science. 40 (3): 217–46. doi:10.1080/00033798300200211. ISSN 0003-3790. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  40. Gilligan, Heather (February 10, 2017). "After fleeing the Nazis, many Jewish refugee professors found homes at historically Black colleges". Timeline. Retrieved December 6, 2018. https://timeline.com/jewish-professors-black-colleges-9a61d4603771 ↩

  41. Hoch, Paul K. (May 11, 1983). "The reception of central European refugee physicists of the 1930s: USSR, UK, US". Annals of Science. 40 (3): 217–46. doi:10.1080/00033798300200211. ISSN 0003-3790. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  42. "Jewish Prof's and HBCU's – African American Registry". African American Registry. Retrieved October 23, 2018. https://aaregistry.org/story/jewish-profs-and-hbcus/ ↩

  43. Marybeth Gasman, "Scylla and Charybdis: Navigating the Waters of Academic Freedom at Fisk University during Charles S. Johnson's Administration (1946–1956)", American Educational Research Journal 36, no. 4 (1999): 739–58. ↩

  44. Willie, Charles Vert; Reddick, Richard J.; Brown, Ronald (2006). The Black College Mystique. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-4617-2. jewish refugees teaching in black colleges. 978-0-7425-4617-2 ↩

  45. Foster, Lenoar (November 11, 2001). "The Not-So-Invisible Professors". Urban Education. 36 (5): 611–29. doi:10.1177/0042085901365006. ISSN 0042-0859. S2CID 145633996. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  46. Jewell, Joseph O. (January 1, 2002). "To Set an Example: The Tradition of Diversity at Historically Black Colleges and Universities". Urban Education. 37 (1): 7–21. doi:10.1177/0042085902371002. S2CID 145115998. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  47. Jewell, Joseph O. (January 1, 2002). "To Set an Example: The Tradition of Diversity at Historically Black Colleges and Universities". Urban Education. 37 (1): 7–21. doi:10.1177/0042085902371002. S2CID 145115998. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  48. "How HBCUs Contributed to the 1940s War Effort". Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. July 12, 2012. https://www.jbhe.com/2012/07/how-hbcus-contributed-to-the-1940s-war-effort/ ↩

  49. Philo Hutcheson, Marybeth Gasman, and Kijua Sanders-McMurtry, "Race and Equality in the Academy: Rethinking Higher Education Actors and the Struggle for Equality in the Post-World War II Period", Journal of Higher Education 82, no. 2 (2011): 121–53 ↩

  50. Smith, Walter L. (1994), The Magnificent Twelve: Florida's Black Junior Colleges, Winter Park, Florida: FOUR-G Publishers, ISBN 1-885066-01-5 1-885066-01-5 ↩

  51. 20 U.S.C. § 1062. ↩

  52. The Act, as amended, defines a "part B institution" as: "...any historically Black college or university that was established before 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary [of Education] to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is, according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation." U.S. Department of Education (January 15, 2008). "HBCUs: A National Resource". White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Archived from the original on May 13, 2008. Retrieved February 8, 2008.20 U.S.C. § 1061. https://web.archive.org/web/20080513215748/http://www.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edlite-index.html ↩

  53. "About Us – White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities". Sites.ed.gov. Retrieved August 24, 2016. http://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/about-us/ ↩

  54. Gasman, Marybeth; Tudico, Christopher L. (2008). Historically Black Colleges and Universities: triumphs, troubles, and taboos (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-230-61726-1. 978-0-230-61726-1 ↩

  55. "HBCU Library Alliance". Hbuclibraries.org. April 23, 2010. Retrieved May 15, 2010. http://www.hbculibraries.org/ ↩

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