Isotopes of gadolinium - Reference.org

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Isotopes of gadolinium

Naturally occurring gadolinium (64Gd) is composed of 6 stable isotopes, 154Gd, 155Gd, 156Gd, 157Gd, 158Gd and 160Gd, and 1 radioisotope, 152Gd, with 158Gd being the most abundant (24.84% natural abundance). The predicted double beta decay of 160Gd has never been observed; only a lower limit on its half-life of more than 1.3×1021 years has been set experimentally.

Thirty-three radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being alpha-decaying 152Gd (naturally occurring) with a half-life of 1.08×1014 years, and 150Gd with a half-life of 1.79×106 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives less than 100 years, the majority of these having half-lives less than 24.6 seconds. Gadolinium isotopes have 10 metastable isomers, with the most stable being 143mGd (t1/2 = 110 seconds), 145mGd (t1/2 = 85 seconds) and 141mGd (t1/2 = 24.5 seconds).

The primary decay mode at atomic weights lower than the most abundant stable isotope, 158Gd, is electron capture, and the primary mode at higher atomic weights is beta decay. The primary decay products for isotopes lighter than 158Gd are isotopes of europium and the primary products of heavier isotopes are isotopes of terbium.

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List of isotopes

Nuclide²	Z	N	Isotopic mass (Da)³ ⁴ ⁵	Half-life ⁶ ⁷ ⁸	Decaymode ⁹ ¹⁰	Daughterisotope ¹¹ ¹²	Spin andparity ¹³ ¹⁴ ¹⁵	Natural abundance (mole fraction)
Nuclide²	Excitation energy¹⁶			Half-life ⁶ ⁷ ⁸	Decaymode ⁹ ¹⁰	Daughterisotope ¹¹ ¹²	Spin andparity ¹³ ¹⁴ ¹⁵	Normal proportion¹⁷	Range of variation
135Gd	64	71	134.95250(43)#	1.1(2) s	β+ (98%)	135Eu	(5/2+)
135Gd	64	71	134.95250(43)#	1.1(2) s	β+, p (98%)	134Sm	(5/2+)
136Gd	64	72	135.94730(32)#	1# s [>200 ns]	β+?	136Eu	0+
136Gd	64	72	135.94730(32)#	1# s [>200 ns]	β+, p?	135Sm	0+
137Gd	64	73	136.94502(32)#	2.2(2) s	β+	137Eu	(7/2)+#
137Gd	64	73	136.94502(32)#	2.2(2) s	β+, p?	136Sm	(7/2)+#
138Gd	64	74	137.94025(22)#	4.7(9) s	β+	138Eu	0+
138mGd	2232.6(11) keV			6.2(0.2) μs	IT	138Gd	(8−)
139Gd	64	75	138.93813(21)#	5.7(3) s	β+	139Eu	9/2−#
139Gd	64	75	138.93813(21)#	5.7(3) s	β+, p?	138Sm	9/2−#
139mGd¹⁸	250(150)# keV			4.8(9) s	β+	139Eu	1/2+#
139mGd¹⁸	250(150)# keV			4.8(9) s	β+, p?	138Sm	1/2+#
140Gd	64	76	139.933674(30)	15.8(4) s	β+ (67(8)%)	140Eu	0+
140Gd	64	76	139.933674(30)	15.8(4) s	EC (33(8)%)	140Eu	0+
141Gd	64	77	140.932126(21)	14(4) s	β+ (99.97%)	141Eu	(1/2+)
141Gd	64	77	140.932126(21)	14(4) s	β+, p (0.03%)	140Sm	(1/2+)
141mGd	377.76(9) keV			24.5(5) s	β+ (89%)	141Eu	(11/2−)
141mGd	377.76(9) keV			24.5(5) s	IT (11%)	141Gd	(11/2−)
142Gd	64	78	141.928116(30)	70.2(6) s	EC (52(5)%)	142Eu	0+
142Gd	64	78	141.928116(30)	70.2(6) s	β+ (48(5)%)	142Eu	0+
143Gd	64	79	142.92675(22)	39(2) s	β+	143Eu	1/2+
					β+, p?	142Sm
					β+, α?	139Pm
143mGd	152.6(5) keV			110.0(14) s	β+	143Eu	11/2−
					β+, p?	142Sm
					β+, α?	139Pm
144Gd	64	80	143.922963(30)	4.47(6) min	β+	144Eu	0+
144mGd	3433.1(5) keV			145(30) ns	IT	144Gd	(10+)
145Gd	64	81	144.921710(21)	23.0(4) min	β+	145Eu	1/2+
145mGd	749.1(2) keV			85(3) s	IT (94.3%)	145Gd	11/2−
145mGd	749.1(2) keV			85(3) s	β+ (5.7%)	145Eu	11/2−
146Gd	64	82	145.9183185(44)	48.27(10) d	EC	146Eu	0+
147Gd	64	83	146.9191010(20)	38.06(12) h	β+	147Eu	7/2−
147mGd	8587.8(5) keV			510(20) ns	IT	147Gd	49/2+
148Gd	64	84	147.9181214(16)	86.9(39) y¹⁹	α²⁰	144Sm	0+
149Gd	64	85	148.9193477(36)	9.28(10) d	β+	149Eu	7/2−
149Gd	64	85	148.9193477(36)	9.28(10) d	α (4.3×10−4%)	145Sm	7/2−
150Gd	64	86	149.9186639(65)	1.79(8)×106 y	α²¹	146Sm	0+
151Gd	64	87	150.9203549(32)	123.9(10) d	EC	151Eu	7/2−
151Gd	64	87	150.9203549(32)	123.9(10) d	α (1.1×10−6%)	147Sm	7/2−
152Gd²²	64	88	151.9197984(11)	1.08(8)×1014 y	α²³	148Sm	0+	0.0020(1)
153Gd	64	89	152.9217569(11)	240.6(7) d	EC	153Eu	3/2−
153m1Gd	95.1737(8) keV			3.5(4) μs	IT	153Gd	9/2+
153m2Gd	171.188(4) keV			76.0(14) μs	IT	153Gd	(11/2−)
154Gd	64	90	153.9208730(11)	Observationally Stable ²⁴			0+	0.0218(2)
155Gd²⁵	64	91	154.9226294(11)	Observationally Stable²⁶			3/2−	0.1480(9)
155mGd	121.10(19) keV			31.97(27) ms	IT	155Gd	11/2−
156Gd²⁷	64	92	155.9221301(11)	Stable			0+	0.2047(3)
156mGd	2137.60(5) keV			1.3(1) μs	IT	156Gd	7-
157Gd²⁸	64	93	156.9239674(10)	Stable			3/2−	0.1565(4)
157m1Gd	63.916(5) keV			460(40) ns	IT	157Gd	5/2+
157m2Gd	426.539(23) keV			18.5(23) μs	IT	157Gd	11/2−
158Gd²⁹	64	94	157.9241112(10)	Stable			0+	0.2484(8)
159Gd³⁰	64	95	158.9263958(11)	18.479(4) h	β−	159Tb	3/2−
160Gd³¹	64	96	159.9270612(12)	Observationally Stable³²			0+	0.2186(3)
161Gd	64	97	160.9296763(16)	3.646(3) min	β−	161Tb	5/2−
162Gd	64	98	161.9309918(43)	8.4(2) min	β−	162Tb	0+
163Gd	64	99	162.93409664(86)	68(3) s	β−	163Tb	7/2+
163mGd	138.22(20) keV			23.5(10) s	IT?	163Gd	1/2−
163mGd	138.22(20) keV			23.5(10) s	β−	163Tb	1/2−
164Gd	64	100	163.9359162(11)	45(3) s	β−	164Tb	0+
164mGd	1095.8(4) keV			589(18) ns	IT	164Gd	(4−)
165Gd	64	101	164.9393171(14)	11.6(10) s	β−	165Tb	1/2−#
166Gd	64	102	165.9416304(17)	5.1(8) s	β−	166Tb	0+
166mGd	1601.5(11) keV			950(60) ns	IT	166Gd	(6−)
167Gd	64	103	166.9454900(56)	4.2(3) s	β−	167Tb	5/2−#
168Gd	64	104	167.94831(32)#	3.03(16) s	β−	168Tb	0+
169Gd	64	105	168.95288(43)#	750(210) ms	β−	169Tb	7/2−#
169Gd	64	105	168.95288(43)#	750(210) ms	β−, n? (<0.7%)³³	168Tb	7/2−#
170Gd	64	106	169.95615(54)#	675+94−75 ms³⁴	β−	170Tb	0+
170Gd	64	106	169.95615(54)#	675+94−75 ms³⁴	β−, n? (<3%)³⁵	169Tb	0+
171Gd	64	107	170.96113(54)#	392+145−136 ms³⁶	β−	171Tb	9/2+#
171Gd	64	107	170.96113(54)#	392+145−136 ms³⁶	β−, n? (<10%)³⁷	170Tb	9/2+#
172Gd	64	108	171.96461(32)#	163+113−99 ms³⁸	β−	172Tb	0+#
172Gd	64	108	171.96461(32)#	163+113−99 ms³⁸	β−, n? (<50%)³⁹	171Tb	0+#
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Gadolinium-148

With a half-life of 86.9±3.9 year via alpha decay alone,⁴⁰ gadolinium-148 would be ideal for radioisotope thermoelectric generators. However, gadolinium-148 cannot be economically synthesized in sufficient quantities to power a RTG.⁴¹

Gadolinium-153

Gadolinium-153 has a half-life of 240.4±10 d and emits gamma radiation with strong peaks at 41 keV and 102 keV. It is used as a gamma ray source for X-ray absorptiometry and fluorescence, for bone density gauges for osteoporosis screening, and for radiometric profiling in the Lixiscope portable x-ray imaging system, also known as the Lixi Profiler. In nuclear medicine, it serves to calibrate the equipment needed like single-photon emission computed tomography systems (SPECT) to make x-rays. It ensures that the machines work correctly to produce images of radioisotope distribution inside the patient. This isotope is produced in a nuclear reactor from europium or enriched gadolinium.⁴² It can also detect the loss of calcium in the hip and back bones, allowing the ability to diagnose osteoporosis.⁴³

Isotope masses from:
- Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
- de Laeter, John Robert; Böhlke, John Karl; De Bièvre, Paul; Hidaka, Hiroshi; Peiser, H. Steffen; Rosman, Kevin J. R.; Taylor, Philip D. P. (2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 75 (6): 683–800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
- Wieser, Michael E. (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 78 (11): 2051–2066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051.
"News & Notices: Standard Atomic Weights Revised". International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 19 October 2005.
Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources.
- Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
- National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.x database". Brookhaven National Laboratory.
- Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.

References

F. A. Danevich; et al. (2001). "Quest for double beta decay of 160Gd and Ce isotopes". Nuclear Physics A. 694 (1–2): 375–391. arXiv:nucl-ex/0011020. Bibcode:2001NuPhA.694..375D. doi:10.1016/S0375-9474(01)00983-6. S2CID 11874988. /wiki/Nuclear_Physics_A ↩
mGd – Excited nuclear isomer. /wiki/Nuclear_isomer ↩
Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩
( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. ↩
# – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS). ↩
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf ↩
Bold half-life – nearly stable, half-life longer than age of universe. /wiki/Age_of_universe ↩
# – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN). ↩
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf ↩
Modes of decay: EC:Electron captureIT:Isomeric transition /wiki/Electron_capture ↩
Bold italics symbol as daughter – Daughter product is nearly stable. ↩
Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable. ↩
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf ↩
( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments. ↩
# – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN). ↩
# – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN). ↩
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf ↩
Order of ground state and isomer is uncertain. ↩
Chiera, Nadine M.; Dressler, Rugard; Sprung, Peter; Talip, Zeynep; Schumann, Dorothea (2023). "Determination of the half-life of gadolinium-148". Applied Radiation and Isotopes. 194. Elsevier BV: 110708. doi:10.1016/j.apradiso.2023.110708. ISSN 0969-8043. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩
Theorized to also undergo β+β+ decay to 148Sm ↩
Theorized to also undergo β+β+ decay to 150Sm ↩
primordial radionuclide /wiki/Primordial_nuclide ↩
Theorized to also undergo β+β+ decay to 152Sm ↩
Believed to undergo α decay to 150Sm ↩
Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩
Believed to undergo α decay to 151Sm ↩
Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩
Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩
Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩
Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩
Fission product /wiki/Fission_product ↩
Believed to undergo β−β− decay to 160Dy with a half-life over 3.1×1019 years /wiki/Half-life ↩
Kiss, G. G.; Vitéz-Sveiczer, A.; Saito, Y.; et al. (2022). "Measuring the β-decay properties of neutron-rich exotic Pm, Sm, Eu, and Gd isotopes to constrain the nucleosynthesis yields in the rare-earth region". The Astrophysical Journal. 936 (107): 107. Bibcode:2022ApJ...936..107K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac80fc. hdl:2117/375253. https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fac80fc ↩
Kiss, G. G.; Vitéz-Sveiczer, A.; Saito, Y.; et al. (2022). "Measuring the β-decay properties of neutron-rich exotic Pm, Sm, Eu, and Gd isotopes to constrain the nucleosynthesis yields in the rare-earth region". The Astrophysical Journal. 936 (107): 107. Bibcode:2022ApJ...936..107K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac80fc. hdl:2117/375253. https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fac80fc ↩
Kiss, G. G.; Vitéz-Sveiczer, A.; Saito, Y.; et al. (2022). "Measuring the β-decay properties of neutron-rich exotic Pm, Sm, Eu, and Gd isotopes to constrain the nucleosynthesis yields in the rare-earth region". The Astrophysical Journal. 936 (107): 107. Bibcode:2022ApJ...936..107K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac80fc. hdl:2117/375253. https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fac80fc ↩
Kiss, G. G.; Vitéz-Sveiczer, A.; Saito, Y.; et al. (2022). "Measuring the β-decay properties of neutron-rich exotic Pm, Sm, Eu, and Gd isotopes to constrain the nucleosynthesis yields in the rare-earth region". The Astrophysical Journal. 936 (107): 107. Bibcode:2022ApJ...936..107K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac80fc. hdl:2117/375253. https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fac80fc ↩
Kiss, G. G.; Vitéz-Sveiczer, A.; Saito, Y.; et al. (2022). "Measuring the β-decay properties of neutron-rich exotic Pm, Sm, Eu, and Gd isotopes to constrain the nucleosynthesis yields in the rare-earth region". The Astrophysical Journal. 936 (107): 107. Bibcode:2022ApJ...936..107K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac80fc. hdl:2117/375253. https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fac80fc ↩
Kiss, G. G.; Vitéz-Sveiczer, A.; Saito, Y.; et al. (2022). "Measuring the β-decay properties of neutron-rich exotic Pm, Sm, Eu, and Gd isotopes to constrain the nucleosynthesis yields in the rare-earth region". The Astrophysical Journal. 936 (107): 107. Bibcode:2022ApJ...936..107K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac80fc. hdl:2117/375253. https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fac80fc ↩
Kiss, G. G.; Vitéz-Sveiczer, A.; Saito, Y.; et al. (2022). "Measuring the β-decay properties of neutron-rich exotic Pm, Sm, Eu, and Gd isotopes to constrain the nucleosynthesis yields in the rare-earth region". The Astrophysical Journal. 936 (107): 107. Bibcode:2022ApJ...936..107K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac80fc. hdl:2117/375253. https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fac80fc ↩
Chiera, Nadine M.; Dressler, Rugard; Sprung, Peter; Talip, Zeynep; Schumann, Dorothea (2023). "Determination of the half-life of gadolinium-148". Applied Radiation and Isotopes. 194. Elsevier BV: 110708. doi:10.1016/j.apradiso.2023.110708. ISSN 0969-8043. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩
Council, National Research; Sciences, Division on Engineering Physical; Board, Aeronautics Space Engineering; Board, Space Studies; Committee, Radioisotope Power Systems (2009). Radioisotope Power Systems: An Imperative for Maintaining U.S. Leadership in Space Exploration. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.367.4042. doi:10.17226/12653. ISBN 978-0-309-13857-4. 978-0-309-13857-4 ↩
"PNNL: Isotope Sciences Program – Gadolinium-153". pnl.gov. Archived from the original on 2009-05-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20090527014921/http://radioisotopes.pnl.gov/gadolinium.stm ↩
"Gadolinium". BCIT Chemistry Resource Center. British Columbia Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 23 August 2011. Retrieved 30 March 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110823085358/http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/resource/ptable/gd.htm ↩