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Clear Script
Alphabet created in 1648 by the Buddhist monk Zaya Pandita for the Oirat language

The Clear Script is an alphabet created in 1648 by the Oirat Lamaist monk Zaya Pandita for the Oirat language. It was developed on the basis of the Mongolian script with the goal of distinguishing all sounds in the spoken language, and to make it easier to transcribe Sanskrit and the Tibetic languages.

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History

The Clear Script is a Mongolian script, whose obvious closest forebear is vertical Mongolian. This Mongolian script was derived from the Uyghur alphabet. The Clear Script was developed as a better way to write Mongolian, specifically of the Western Mongolian groups of the Oirats and Kalmyks.5: 548  It resolved ambiguities in the written language by assigning symbols to vowels, and adding new symbols and diacritics to show vowels and vowel lengths, and to distinguish between voiced and unvoiced consonants.6: 548 7: 145  Symbols that were preserved from the traditional Mongolian script were assigned a fixed meaning.8: 145 

There were even some marks enabling distinctions that were unimportant for words written in the Oirat language but were useful for the transcription of foreign words and names, such as between ši and si.9

Usage

The Clear Script was used by Oirat and neighboring Mongols, mostly in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.10 It was widely used by its creator and others to translate Buddhist works so that they might better spread the Buddhist religion throughout western Mongolia. Though the script was useful for translating works from other languages, especially Tibetan, it was also used more informally, as evidenced by some letters from the late 1690s.11

Around the 19th and early 20th centuries, some Altaians in Russia were able utilize the script to read and write texts due to contacts with Mongolian Buddhists.12

The script was used by Kalmyks in Russia until 1924, when it was replaced by the Cyrillic script. In Xinjiang, Oirats still use it, although today Mongolian education takes place in Chakhar Mongolian all across China.

Writing in the Clear Script

This script is a vertical script, as was its 'vertical Mongolian' parent script. Letters and diacritics are written along a central axis. Portions of letters to the right of the axis generally slant up, and portions to the left of the axis generally slant down. The only signs that do not follow these rules are the horizontal signs for S, Š, and part of Ö.13 Words are delineated by a space, as well as different letter forms. Though most letters only come in one shape, there are some letters that look different depending on where in the word they occur, whether they are initial, medial, or final.14

Tables

There is an alphabetic order in the Clear Script, as in other related scripts, but the order for it is not the same as its Mongolian parent script. The Clear Script order is: a, e, i, o, u, ö, ü; n, b, x, ɣ, g, k & k’, q, m, l, r, d, t, y, z/ǰ, c/č, s, š, ng, v/w.15: 150–151 

Vowels

Single vowels16: 548 171819: 151 20: 555 
InitialMedialFinalIPA21Trans­lit.22Notes2324
Dan.25 & KaraALA-LC
All these form ligatures with a preceding bow-shaped consonant.
ᠠ‍‍ᠠ‍‍ᠠɑ, ∅aFinal example ligature: ‍ᡋᠠ ba. This ligated form of final a extends its tail to the left.

Confer Kalmyk Oirat а a and [∅] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help).

This letter's forms are shared with Hudum script a.

ᡄ‍‍ᡄ‍‍ᡄe, ∅eInitial/medial/final example ligature: ᡋᡄ be.

Confer Kalmyk Oirat э è and [∅] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help).

ᡅ‍‍ᡅ‍‍ᡅi, ∅iFinal example ligature: ᡋᡅ bi. This ligated form of final i differs from the one used elsewhere.

Confer Kalmyk Oirat и i and [∅] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help).

ᡆ‍‍ᡆ‍‍ᡆɔoInitial/medial/final example ligature: ᡋᡆ bo. This ligated form of o is fully round. The ligature bo is also identical in form to bü.

Confer Kalmyk Oirat о o and [∅] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help).

ᡇ‍‍ᡇ‍‍ᡇʊ, ∅uInitial/medial/final example ligature: ᡋᡇ bu.

Confer Kalmyk Oirat у u and [∅] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help).

ᡈ‍‍ᡈ‍‍ᡈø, ∅öInitial/medial/final example ligature: ᡋᡈ bö. This ligated form of ö is fully round.

Confer Kalmyk Oirat ө ô and [∅] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help).

ᡉ‍‍ᡉ‍‍ᡉy, ∅üInitial/medial/final example ligature: ᡋᡉ bü. The ligatures bü and bo are identical in form.

Confer Kalmyk Oirat ү ù and [∅] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help).

Long vowels26: 548 272829: 555 
InitialMedialFinalIPATrans­lit.Notes
Dan.ALA-LC
ᠠᡃ‍‍ᠠᡃ‍—ɑːâāFinal example ligature: ‍ᡗᠠᡃ kâ.

Confer Kalmyk Oirat аа aa and а a.

ᡄᡃ‍‍ᡄᡃ‍‍ᡄᡃ⟨?⟩30eː, æːêēConfer Kalmyk Oirat ээ èè and э è.
ᡅᡅ‍⟨?⟩31‍ᡅᡅ‍⟨?⟩32—iːiiiyiDiphthongs ending in i are shaped and transliterated in the same manner.

Confer Kalmyk Oirat ии ii and и i.

——‍ᡅᡅii
ᡆᡃ‍‍ᡆᡃ‍‍ᡆᡃ⟨?⟩33ɔːôōConfer Kalmyk Oirat оо oo and о o.
ᡇᡇ᠌‍‍ᡇᡇ᠌‍‍ᡇᡇ᠋ʊːuuConfer Kalmyk Oirat уу uu and у u.
ᡈᡃ‍‍ᡈᡃ‍‍ᡈᡃ⟨?⟩34øː, æːö̂ȫConfer Kalmyk Oirat өө ôô and ө ô.
ᡉᡉ‍‍ᡉᡉ‍‍ᡉᡉyːüüConfer Kalmyk Oirat үү ùù and ү ù.

Consonants

Native consonants3536: 548 3738: 151 3940: 555 
InitialMedialFinalIPATrans­lit.Notes41
Dan. & KaraALA-LC
ᠨ‍‍ᠨ‍‍ᠨnnConfer Kalmyk Oirat н n.

This letter is shared with Hudum n.

‍ᠨ᠋‍
ᡋ‍‍ᡋ‍‍ᡋbbConfer Kalmyk Oirat б b.

This letter's initial/medial form is shared with Hudum b.

ᡍ‍‍ᡍ‍—xxUsed before back vowels.42: 149 

As in ᡍᠠᠷᠠ xara 'black'.43: 121 44: 95 45

Confer Kalmyk Oirat х h.

ᡎ‍‍ᡎ‍—ɢɣġUsed before vowels.

As in ᡎᠠᠯ ɣal 'fire'.46: 63 47: 127 48

Confer Kalmyk Oirat һ ḥ.

—ɡgAs in ᡎᡄᠷ ger 'ger'.49: 28 50: 136 51

Confer Kalmyk Oirat г g.

ᡍ᠋‍‍ᡍ᠋‍—kkUsed before front vowels.52: 149 

As in ᡍᡈᡍᡈ kökö 'blue'.53: 95 54: 119 55

Confer Kalmyk Oirat к k.

—‍ᡎ᠋‍‍ᡎɡqUsed syllable-finally,56: 151  and irrespective of vowel harmony.57: 145 

As in ᡔᠠᡎ caq 'time'.58: 21 59: 244 60

Confer Kalmyk Oirat г g.

ᡏ‍‍ᡏ‍‍ᡏmmConfer Kalmyk Oirat м m.

This letter's initial/medial form is shared with Hudum m.

ᠯ‍‍ᠯ‍‍ᠯllConfer Kalmyk Oirat л l.

This letter is shared with Hudum l.

ᠷ‍‍ᠷ‍‍ᠷrrConfer Kalmyk Oirat р r.

This letter is shared with Hudum r.

ᡑ‍‍ᡑ‍‍ᡑddConfer Kalmyk Oirat д d.
ᡐ‍‍ᡐ‍—ttConfer Kalmyk Oirat т t.
ᡕ‍‍ᡕ‍—jyConfer Kalmyk Oirat й j.
ᠴ‍‍ᠴ‍—zz, ǰ†z†. Ambiguous value (z, ǰ) from the 18th century until post-war reform.61: 149–150 

As in modern/older ᠴᡇᠨ zun 'summer'.62: 50 63: 274 64

Confer Kalmyk Oirat з z.

ᡓ‍‍ᡓ‍—d͡ʒǰ—Introduced in the 1950s.65: 149–150, 187 

As in modern ᡓᡅᠯ ǰil? (older ᠴᡅᠯ zil) 'year'.66: 24 67: 257 68

Confer Kalmyk Oirat ж z̆.

ᡔ‍‍ᡔ‍—t͡sc, č†c†. Ambiguous value (c, č) from the 18th century until post-war reform.69: 149–150 

As in modern/older ᡔᠠᡅ cai 'tea'.70: 120 71: 246 72

Confer Kalmyk Oirat ц c.

ᡒ‍‍ᡒ‍—t͡ʃč—Introduced in the 1950s.73: 149–150, 187 

As in modern ᡒᡅ či? (older ᡔᡅ ci) 'you'.74: 111 75: 235 76

Confer Kalmyk Oirat ч č.

ᠰ‍‍ᠰ‍‍ᠰssConfer Kalmyk Oirat с s.

This letter is shared with Hudum s.

ᠱ‍‍ᠱ‍‍ᠱʃšśConfer Kalmyk Oirat ш s̆.

This letter is shared with Hudum š.

—‍ᡊ‍‍ᡊŋngConfer Kalmyk Oirat ң n̦.
Letters used in foreign words77: 548 787980: 555 
InitialMedialFinalIPATranslit.Notes
Dan. & KaraALA-LC
ᡌ‍‍ᡌ‍—p—fConfer Kalmyk Oirat п p.
ᡙ‍‍ᡙ‍—hConfer Kalmyk Oirat г g.
ᡘ‍‍ᡘ‍‍ᡘ—Confer Kalmyk Oirat г g.
ᡗ‍‍ᡗ‍—kk, k’kConfer Kalmyk Oirat к k.
ᡚ‍‍ᡚ‍——jConfer Kalmyk Oirat җ z̦̆.
—‍ᡛ‍—ñ
ᡜ‍‍ᡜ‍—j
ᢘ‍‍ᢘ‍‍ᢘ—
ᢙ‍‍ᢙ‍—ź
ᠸ‍‍ᠸ‍‍ᠸ—Confer Kalmyk Oirat ф f.

This letter is shared with Hudum w/v.

ᡖ‍‍ᡖ‍‍ᡖww/vvConfer Kalmyk Oirat в v.

Ligatures

Ligatures81
InitialMedialFinalTrans­lit.Notes
Dan.ALA-LC
ᡋᠠ‍‍ᡋᠠ‍‍ᡋᠠba
ᡋᡄ‍‍ᡋᡄ‍‍ᡋᡄbe
ᡋᡅ‍‍ᡋᡅ‍‍ᡋᡅbi
ᡋᡆ‍‍ᡋᡆ‍‍ᡋᡆboWritten the same as bü.
ᡋᡇ‍‍ᡋᡇ‍‍ᡋᡇbu
ᡋᡈ‍‍ᡋᡈ‍‍ᡋᡈbö
ᡋᡉ‍‍ᡋᡉ‍‍ᡋᡉbüWritten the same as bo.
ᡗᠠ‍‍ᡗᠠ‍‍ᡗᠠka
ᡍᡄ‍‍ᡍᡄ‍‍ᡍᡄke
ᡍᡅ‍‍ᡍᡅ‍‍ᡍᡅki
ᡗᡆ‍‍ᡗᡆ‍‍ᡗᡆko
ᡗᡇ‍‍ᡗᡇ‍‍ᡗᡇku
ᡍᡈ‍‍ᡍᡈ‍‍ᡍᡈkö
ᡍᡉ‍⟨?⟩‍ᡍᡉ‍⟨?⟩‍ᡍᡉ⟨?⟩kü82
ᡘᠠ‍‍ᡘᠠ‍‍ᡘᠠga
ᡎᡄ‍⟨?⟩‍ᡎᡄ‍⟨?⟩‍ᡎᡄ⟨?⟩ge83
ᡎᡅ‍⟨?⟩‍ᡎᡅ‍⟨?⟩‍ᡎᡅ⟨?⟩gi84
ᡘᡆ‍‍ᡘᡆ‍‍ᡘᡆgo
ᡘᡇ‍‍ᡘᡇ‍‍ᡘᡇgu
ᡎᡈ‍‍ᡎᡈ‍‍ᡎᡈgö
ᡎᡉ‍‍ᡎᡉ‍‍ᡎᡉgü
Other bow-shaped ligatures are formed in the same manner.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Todo bichig.

Notes

References

  1. Oirat: ᡐᡆᡑᡆᡋᡅᡒᡅᡎ / Тодо бичиг, romanized: todo bičiq / todo bičig, [todo bit͡ʃ(ə)k]Mongolian: Тод бичиг / ᠲᠣᠳᠣᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ, romanized: tod bichig / todo bičig, [tɔd bit͡ʃək]Russian Buryat: Тодо бэшэг, romanized: Todo besheg, [tɔdɔ bɛʃək] /wiki/Oirat_language ↩

  2. Yakhantova, N. (2006). "The Mongolian and Oirat Translations of the Sutra of Golden Light" (PDF) (in Chinese and English). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-04-07. https://web.archive.org/web/20160407212301/http://www.nlc.gov.cn/newhxjy/wjls/wjqcsy/wjd17q/201011/P020101123700814793877.pdf ↩

  3. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  4. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  5. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  6. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  7. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  8. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  9. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  10. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  11. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  12. Kos'min, V. K. (2007). "Mongolian Buddhism's Influence on the Formation and Development of Burkhanism in Altai". Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia. 45 (3): 43–72. doi:10.2753/aae1061-1959450303. ISSN 1061-1959. S2CID 145805201. https://dx.doi.org/10.2753/aae1061-1959450303 ↩

  13. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  14. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  15. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  16. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  17. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  18. "Tod-Oirat-Old Kalmyk romanization table" (PDF). Library of Congress. 2012. Retrieved 2023-02-06. https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/kalmyk.pdf ↩

  19. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  20. "The Unicode Standard, Version 15.0 – Core Specification Chapter 13: South and Central Asia-II, Other Modern Scripts" (PDF). Unicode Standard 15.0.0. 2022-09-13. Retrieved 2023-02-06. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  21. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  22. Transliteration /wiki/Transliteration ↩

  23. Modern Kalmyk Oirat (Cyrillic) equivalent (?) ↩

  24. GOST 7.79-2000 (ISO 9:1995)[8]:  9, 16 /wiki/GOST_7.79-2000 ↩

  25. Daniels ↩

  26. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  27. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  28. "Tod-Oirat-Old Kalmyk romanization table" (PDF). Library of Congress. 2012. Retrieved 2023-02-06. https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/kalmyk.pdf ↩

  29. "The Unicode Standard, Version 15.0 – Core Specification Chapter 13: South and Central Asia-II, Other Modern Scripts" (PDF). Unicode Standard 15.0.0. 2022-09-13. Retrieved 2023-02-06. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  30. Should appear without a final left-pointing tail. ↩

  31. Should appear with an intervocalic tooth. ↩

  32. Should appear with an intervocalic tooth. ↩

  33. Should appear without a final left-pointing tail. ↩

  34. Should appear without a final left-pointing tail. ↩

  35. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  36. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  37. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  38. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  39. "Tod-Oirat-Old Kalmyk romanization table" (PDF). Library of Congress. 2012. Retrieved 2023-02-06. https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/kalmyk.pdf ↩

  40. "The Unicode Standard, Version 15.0 – Core Specification Chapter 13: South and Central Asia-II, Other Modern Scripts" (PDF). Unicode Standard 15.0.0. 2022-09-13. Retrieved 2023-02-06. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  41. "Bolor Dictionary". Retrieved 2023-02-06. http://www.bolor-toli.com/ ↩

  42. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  43. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  44. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  45. Confer Kalmyk Oirat хар har; Hudum ᠬᠠᠷ᠎ᠠ qar‑a; Khalkha хар khar. ↩

  46. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  47. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  48. Confer Kalmyk Oirat һал ḥal; Hudum ᠭᠠᠯ ɣal; Khalkha гал gal. ↩

  49. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  50. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  51. Confer Kalmyk Oirat гер ger; Hudum ᠭᠡᠷ ger; Khalkha гэр ger. ↩

  52. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  53. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  54. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  55. Confer Kalmyk Oirat көк kök; Hudum ᠬᠥᠬᠡ köke; Khalkha хөх khökh. ↩

  56. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  57. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  58. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  59. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  60. Confer Kalmyk Oirat цаг cag; Hudum ᠴᠠᠭ čaɣ; Khalkha цаг tsag. ↩

  61. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  62. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  63. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  64. Confer Kalmyk Oirat зун zun; Hudum ᠵᠤᠨ ǰun; Khalkha зун zun. ↩

  65. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  66. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  67. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  68. Confer Kalmyk Oirat җил z̦̆il; Hudum ᠵᠢᠯ ǰil; Khalkha жил jil. ↩

  69. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  70. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  71. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  72. Confer Kalmyk Oirat цә ca̋; Hudum ᠴᠠᠢ čai; Khalkha цай tsai. ↩

  73. Kara, György (2005). Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-52-3. 978-0-933070-52-3 ↩

  74. Smirnov, Parmen (1857). Kratkiy russko-kalmytskiy slovar Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь (PDF) (in Russian). Kazan. Retrieved 2023-02-06.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Краткій русско-калмыцкій словарь ↩

  75. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  76. Confer Kalmyk Oirat чи či; Hudum ᠴᠢ či; Khalkha чи chi. ↩

  77. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 978-0-19-507993-7 ↩

  78. n/a, Čoyiǰungǰab; Na., Gereltü (1998-05-10). Oyirad ayalɣun-u üges ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ (PDF) (in Mongolian). Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University. ISBN 7-81015-892-9. Retrieved 2023-02-06. ᠣᠶᠢᠷᠠᠳ ᠠᠶᠠᠯᠭᠤᠨ ᠤ ᠦᠭᠡᠰ7-81015-892-9 ↩

  79. "Tod-Oirat-Old Kalmyk romanization table" (PDF). Library of Congress. 2012. Retrieved 2023-02-06. https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/kalmyk.pdf ↩

  80. "The Unicode Standard, Version 15.0 – Core Specification Chapter 13: South and Central Asia-II, Other Modern Scripts" (PDF). Unicode Standard 15.0.0. 2022-09-13. Retrieved 2023-02-06. https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch13.pdf ↩

  81. "Tod-Oirat-Old Kalmyk romanization table" (PDF). Library of Congress. 2012. Retrieved 2023-02-06. https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/kalmyk.pdf ↩

  82. Should appear as a bow with a down-pointing tooth, followed by a round ü. ↩

  83. Should appear in line with be and ke. ↩

  84. Should appear in line with bi and ki. ↩