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Arctic
Polar region of the Earth's northern hemisphere

The Arctic is the polar region surrounding the North Pole, located within the Arctic Circle. It includes parts of northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, the United States (Alaska), Canada, the Danish Realm (Greenland), and northern Iceland, as well as the Arctic Ocean. The region features seasonally varying snow and ice cover, treeless permafrost under tundra, and sea ice. Its unique ecosystems support diverse life including zooplankton, phytoplankton, marine mammals, birds, and human cultures adapted to extreme conditions, such as the Arctic indigenous peoples.

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Definition and etymology

The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός arktikos "near the Bear, northern"4 and from the word ἄρκτος arktos meaning "bear" for either to the constellation known as Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere,56 or the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little Bear", which contains the celestial north pole (currently very near Polaris, the current north Pole Star, or North Star).7

There are several definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (about 66° 34'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Another definition of the Arctic, which is popular with ecologists, is the region in the Northern Hemisphere where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 °C (50 °F); the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.89

Climate

Main articles: Climate of the Arctic and Climate change in the Arctic

The climate of the Arctic region is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as −40 °C (−40 °F), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C (−90 °F). Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to climate change in the Arctic, including Arctic sea ice decline, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane emissions as the permafrost thaws.1011 The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.12

Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about 56 km (35 mi) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking.13 Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to sometime around 2067.1415

Flora and fauna

Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions.

Plants

Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. An example of a dwarf shrub is the bearberry. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity, and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the Arctic poppy).

Animals

See also: List of Arctic cetaceans

See also the categories Fauna of the Arctic and Mammals of the Arctic

Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and reindeer (caribou). They are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, grizzly bear, and Arctic wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines, moose, Dall sheep, ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walruses, and several species of cetacean—baleen whales and also narwhals, orcas, and belugas.

Natural resources

See also: Natural resources of the Arctic and Petroleum exploration in the Arctic

There are copious natural resources in the Arctic (oil, gas, minerals, freshwater, fish, and, if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest in the tourism industry is also on the increase.

The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic of the region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply.16

Paleontology

During the Cretaceous period, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as the Muttaburrasaurus of Australia.

However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about 70°  N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further north.17

Indigenous population

Main article: Circumpolar peoples

Further information: Indigenous peoples of Siberia and Inuit Circumpolar Council

The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BCE. AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset cultures.1819 The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during 1050–550 BCE. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 CE.20 Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of the 20th century.21

The Dorset / Thule culture transition dates around the ninth–10th centuries CE. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact between the two cultures with the sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture.22 The evidence suggested that Inuit descend from the Birnirk of Siberia, through the Thule culture expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they genetically and culturally completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people sometime after 1300 CE.23 The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out the Dorset people in "an example of prehistoric genocide."24

By 1300 CE, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland and moved into east Greenland over the following century (Inughuit, Kalaallit and Tunumiit are modern Greenlandic Inuit groups descended from Thule). Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Eastern Russia, the United States, Canada, and Greenland.25

Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi, Evenks, Iñupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sámi, Yukaghir, Gwichʼin, and Yupik.

International cooperation and politics

Main article: Arctic cooperation and politics

The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Kingdom of Denmark [Greenland & The Faroe Islands], Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and US) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations (The Aleut International Association, Arctic Athabaskan Council, Gwich'in Council International, Inuit Circumpolar Council, Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, and Saami Council). The council operates on a consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.

Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection.26 Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.27 Arctic shipping is subject to some regulatory control through the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, adopted by the International Maritime Organization on 1 January 2017 and applies to all ships in Arctic waters over 500 tonnes.2829

Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.30

Territorial claims

Main article: Territorial claims in the Arctic

While there are several ongoing territorial claims in the Arctic, no country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean—Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States—are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean.

Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone.3132 Due to this, Norway (which ratified the convention in 1996),33 Russia (ratified in 1997),34 Canada (ratified in 2003)35 and the Kingdom of Denmark (ratified in 2004)36 launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories.

On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. The flag-placing, during Arktika 2007, generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources.37

Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration,3839 blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."4041

As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the exclusive economic zone of Russia.42

The Russian Federation is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic region. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean, asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge is an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August 2016, the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission.43

Canada claims the Northwest Passage as part of its internal waters belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations44 regards it as an international strait, which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage.45

Exploration

Main article: Arctic exploration

See also: Petroleum exploration in the Arctic

Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian crewed drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.46 Modern day scientists now rely more heavily on unmanned buoys and ice-tethered observatories than crewed stations for Arctic research and exploration4748

Pollution

Main articles: Pollution in the Arctic Ocean and Arctic haze

The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants, and in some places, the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife and people.

Preservation

Main article: Save the Arctic

There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of states at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic Treaty System. The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic.49

The Arctic has climate change rates that are amongst the highest in the world. Due to the major impacts to the region from climate change the near climate future of the region will be extremely different under all scenarios of warming.50

Climate change

Main article: Climate change in the Arctic

The effects of climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern.51 Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.5253

The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater climate change in the Arctic than the global average,54 resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.55

The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms.5657 Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming,58 as they are potent greenhouse gases.59

Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs,60 and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.61

Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route.62 One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship.63

In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.64 These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.65666768

Arctic waters

Arctic lands

Geographic designationNational affiliationDesignation
AlaskaUnited StatesState
Aleutian IslandsUnited StatesAmerican archipelago
Arkhangelsk OblastRussiaFederal subject
Arctic ArchipelagoCanadaCanadian archipelago
Chukotka Autonomous OkrugRussiaFederal subject
Diomede Island (Big)RussiaIsland
Diomede Island (Little)United StatesIsland
FinnmarkNorwayCounties of Norway
Franz Josef LandRussiaFederal subject archipelago
GreenlandKingdom of DenmarkAutonomous country
GrímseyIcelandIsland
Inuvik RegionCanadaAdministrative region of the Northwest Territories
Jan MayenNorwayIsland
KainuuFinlandRegions of Finland
Kitikmeot RegionCanadaAdministrative region of Nunavut
Kivalliq RegionCanadaAdministrative region of Nunavut
KolbeinseyIcelandIsland
Krasnoyarsk KraiRussiaFederal subjects of Russia
LappiFinlandRegions of Finland
LapplandSwedenProvinces of Sweden
Murmansk OblastRussiaFederal subjects of Russia
Nenets Autonomous OkrugRussiaFederal subjects of Russia
New Siberian IslandsRussiaArchipelago
NordlandNorwayCounties of Norway
NorrbottenSwedenProvinces of Sweden
North OstrobothniaFinlandRegions of Finland
Northwest TerritoriesCanadaTerritory of Canada
Novaya ZemlyaRussiaFederal subject archipelago
NunavikCanadaNorthern part of Quebec
NunatsiavutCanadaAutonomous region of Labrador (Newfoundland and Labrador)
NunavutCanadaTerritory of Canada
Qikiqtaaluk Region (Baffin)CanadaAdministrative region of Nunavut
Russian Arctic islandsRussiaIslands
SápmiNorway, Sweden, Finland, RussiaFennoscandia region
Sakha RepublicRussiaFederal subject
Severnaya ZemlyaRussiaFederal subject archipelago
SiberiaRussiaRegion
SvalbardNorwayGovernor of Svalbard archipelago
TromsNorwayCounties of Norway
VästerbottenSwedenProvinces of Sweden
Wrangel IslandRussiaZapovednik (nature reserve)
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous OkrugRussiaFederal subjects of Russia
YukonCanadaTerritory of Canada

See also

  • Geography portal

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

References

  1. "arctic". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 4 January 2019. "The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Arctic". Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=arctic ↩

  2. The word was originally pronounced without the /k/ sound, but the pronunciation with the /k/ sound is nowadays very common. The c was added to the spelling for etymological reasons[1][2] and then began to be pronounced. ↩

  3. Krembs, Christopher; Deming, Jody (18 November 2006). "Organisms that thrive in Arctic sea ice". NOAA. Archived from the original on 23 March 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100323190329/http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_krembsdeming.html ↩

  4. Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert. "Arktikos." Archived 30 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315193 ↩

  5. Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert. "Arktos." Archived 30 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315199 ↩

  6. Ridpath, Ian (2018). Star Tales. Cambridge, England, UK: James Clarke & Company. pp. 172–176. ISBN 978-0-7188-4781-4. 978-0-7188-4781-4 ↩

  7. "The Great Bear Constellation Ursa Major". Archived from the original on 30 November 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2010. http://www.souledout.org/nightsky/ursamandm/ursamajorandminor.html ↩

  8. "arctic." Archived 14 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. Retrieved 2 May 2009. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/arctic ↩

  9. Addison, Kenneth (2002). Fundamentals of the physical environment. Routledge. p. 482. ISBN 978-0-415-23293-7. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2015. 978-0-415-23293-7 ↩

  10. Radford, Tim (2 September 2020). "Arctic heating races ahead of worst case estimates". Climate News Network. Archived from the original on 4 September 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020. https://climatenewsnetwork.net/arctic-heating-races-ahead-of-worst-case-estimates/ ↩

  11. Dormann, C. F.; Woodin, S. J. (February 2002). "Climate change in the Arctic: using plant functional types in a meta-analysis of field experiments: Meta-analysis of arctic experiments". Functional Ecology. 16 (1): 4–17. doi:10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00596.x. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2023. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.0269-8463.2001.00596.x ↩

  12. Tedesco, M.; Mote, T.; Fettweis, X.; Hanna, E.; Jeyaratnam, J.; Booth, J. F.; Datta, R.; Briggs, K. (9 June 2016). "Arctic cut-off high drives the poleward shift of a new Greenland melting record". Nature Communications. 7: 11723. Bibcode:2016NatCo...711723T. doi:10.1038/ncomms11723. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 4906163. PMID 27277547. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4906163 ↩

  13. Hansen, Jim (19 October 2006). "The Planet in Peril – Part I". Yale Center for the Study of Globalization. Archived from the original on 15 October 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20091015173024/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/planet-peril-%E2%80%93-part-i ↩

  14. Kirby, Alex (11 August 2020). "End of Arctic sea ice by 2035 possible, study finds". Climate News Network. Archived from the original on 15 September 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020. https://climatenewsnetwork.net/end-of-arctic-sea-ice-by-2035-possible-study-finds/ ↩

  15. Reich, Katharine (15 November 2019). "Arctic Ocean could be ice-free for part of the year as soon as 2044". phys.org. Archived from the original on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020. https://phys.org/news/2019-11-arctic-ocean-ice-free-year.html ↩

  16. Society, National Geographic (6 October 2016). "Arctic". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2020. http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/arctic/ ↩

  17. "A paleontologists Alaskan adventure". New Scientist. 9 June 2012. Archived from the original on 12 April 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2022. https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21428686-800-a-palaeontologists-alaskan-adventure/ ↩

  18. Hoffecker, John F. (2005). A prehistory of the north: human settlement of the higher latitudes. Rutgers University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-8135-3469-5. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2020. 978-0-8135-3469-5 ↩

  19. Gibbon, pp. 28–31 ↩

  20. Gibbon, pp. 216–217 ↩

  21. McGhee, Robert (2005). The last imaginary place: a human history of the Arctic world (Digitized 7 October 2008 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-19-518368-9. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2020. 978-0-19-518368-9 ↩

  22. Gibbon, p. 218. ↩

  23. "New Study Offers Clues to Swift Arctic Extinction". The New York Times. 28 August 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/29/science/study-offers-clues-to-arctic-mystery-paleo-eskimos-abrupt-extinction.html ↩

  24. "Dorset DNA: Genes Trace the Tale of the Arctic's Long-Gone 'Hobbits'". NBC News. 28 August 2014. http://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/dorset-dna-genes-trace-tale-arctics-long-gone-hobbits-n191156 ↩

  25. "First Nations Culture Areas Index". the Canadian Museum of Civilization. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 30 December 2009. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml ↩

  26. Buixadé Farré, Albert; Stephenson, Scott R.; Chen, Linling; Czub, Michael; Dai, Ying; Demchev, Denis; Efimov, Yaroslav; Graczyk, Piotr; Grythe, Henrik; Keil, Kathrin; Kivekäs, Niku; Kumar, Naresh; Liu, Nengye; Matelenok, Igor; Myksvoll, Mari; O'Leary, Derek; Olsen, Julia; Pavithran, A. P., Sachin; Petersen, Edward; Raspotnik, Andreas; Ryzhov, Ivan; Solski, Jan; Suo, Lingling; Troein, Caroline; Valeeva, Vilena; van Rijckevorsel, Jaap; Wighting, Jonathan (16 October 2014). "Commercial Arctic shipping through the Northeast Passage: Routes, resources, governance, technology, and infrastructure". Polar Geography. 37 (4): 298. Bibcode:2014PolGe..37..298B. doi:10.1080/1088937X.2014.965769. hdl:2440/112024. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1088937X.2014.965769 ↩

  27. Berkman, Paul (23 June 2014). "Stability and Peace in the Arctic Ocean through Science Diplomacy". Science & Diplomacy. 3 (2). Archived from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2014. http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2014/stability-and-peace-in-arctic-ocean-through-science-diplomacy ↩

  28. "Shipping in polar waters". IMO. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021. https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Polar-default.aspx ↩

  29. "The Polar Code, One Year On". The Maritime Executive. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021. https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/the-polar-code-one-year-on ↩

  30. King, Lorenz (1992). "Polarregionen, vom Neuland zum wissenschaftlichen Brennpunkt" [Polar regions, from uncharted territory to scientific focus]. Giessener Diskurse: Wissenschaft und Neues Weltbild (in German). 6/7: 231–256. ISBN 3-927835-25-0. 3-927835-25-0 ↩

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  32. "United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Annex 2, Article 4)". Archived from the original on 16 July 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007. https://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/annex2.htm ↩

  33. "Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements". United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. 22 April 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2009. https://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm ↩

  34. "Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements". United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. 22 April 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2009. https://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm ↩

  35. "Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements". United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. 22 April 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2009. https://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm ↩

  36. "Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements". United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. 22 April 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2009. https://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm ↩

  37. Yenikeyeff, S. M. and Fenton Krysiek, Timothy (August 2007). The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. Archived 10 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Aug2007-TheBattleforthenextenergyfrontier-ShamilYenikeyeff-and-TimothyFentonKrysiek.pdf ↩

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