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Amalek
Nation and a character described in the Hebrew Bible

Amalek is described in the Hebrew Bible as the enemy of the nation of the Israelites. The name "Amalek" can refer to the descendants of Amalek, the grandson of Esau, or anyone who lived in their territories in Canaan, or North African descendants of Ham, the son of Noah.

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Etymology

Most scholars regard the origin of the term, "Amalek" to be unknown6 but in some rabbinical interpretations, it is etymologized as am lak, 'a people who lick (blood)'.7

Richard C. Steiner has suggested that the name is derived from the Egyptian term *ꜥꜣm rqj "hostile Asiatic", possibly referring to Shasu tribesmen from around Edom.8

In the Hebrew Bible

"Amalekites" redirects here. For Amalekites in the Book of Mormon, see Amalekites (Book of Mormon).

According to the Hebrew Bible, Amalek was the son of Eliphaz (himself the son of Esau, ancestor of the Edomites and the brother of Israel) and Eliphaz's concubine Timna. Timna was a Horite and sister of Lotan.9 According to a midrash, Timna was a princess who tried to convert. However, she was rejected by Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. She replied she would rather be a handmaiden to the dregs of Israel than be a mistress of another gentile nation. To punish the Patriarchs for their attitudes, God caused Timna to give birth to Amalek, whose descendants would cause Israel much distress. Amalek was also the product of an incestuous union since Eliphaz was Timna's stepfather according to 1 Chronicles 1:36,10 after he committed adultery with the wife of Seir the Horite, who was Timna's biological father.1112 First-century Roman Jewish scholar and historian Josephus refers to Amalek as a "bastard" (Koinē Greek: νόθος);13 the Hebrew equivalent, mamzer, is a specific category of persons born from a forbidden relationship.

Amalekites

Amalek is described in Genesis 36:1614 as the "chief of Amalek" among the "chiefs of the sons of Esau", from which it is surmised that he ruled a clan or territory named after him. In the oracle of Balaam, Amalek was called the "first of the nations".15 One modern scholar believes this attests to Amalek's high antiquity,16 while traditional commentator Rashi states: "He came before all of them to make war with Israel".17 The Amalekites (/ˈæməlɛkaɪts/)18 were claimed to be Amalek's descendants through the genealogy of Esau.19

According to the Hebrew Bible, the Amalekites inhabited the Negev and Sinai Peninsula.20 They appear to have lived a nomadic or seminomadic lifestyle along the fringes of southern Canaan's agricultural zone.21 This is probably based on the association of this tribal group with the steppe region of ancient Israel and the area of Kadesh (Genesis 14:7).

As a people, the Amalekites are identified throughout the Hebrew Bible as a recurrent enemy of the Israelites:22

  • In Exodus 17:8–16 during the Exodus, the Amalekites ambush the Israelites encamped at Rephidim, but are defeated. Moses orders Joshua to lead the Israelites into battle, while Moses, Aaron and Hur watch from a nearby hill. When Moses' hands holding his staff are raised, the Israelites prevail, but when his hands are lowered, the Israelites falter. He sits with his hands held up by Aaron and Hur until sunset, securing the Israelite victory.
  • In Deuteronomy 25:17–19,23 The Israelites are specifically commanded to "blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven" once they have taken possession of the Promised Land in retribution for "what Amalek did to [them] on the way as [they] were coming out of Egypt", a reference to the Amalekite ambush on the Israelites at Rephidim. Earlier, in Deuteronomy 7:1–1624 and Deuteronomy 25:16–18,25 they are commanded to utterly destroy all the inhabitants of the idolatrous cities in the promised land and their livestock; scripture purports that King Saul ultimately loses favor with Yahweh for failing to kill King Agag and the best livestock of the Amalekites in 1 Samuel 1526 in defiance of these commandments.
  • In Numbers 14:45,27 the Amalekites and Canaanites kill a group of Israelites who tried to enter the hill country of the Amorites without Moses's permission.
  • In Judges 3:13,28 Amalek, and their Moabite and Ammonite allies, defeat Israel so that the Moabites could oppress them. Judges 10:11–1329 confirms Amalek as being one of the many oppressors of Israel.
  • In Judges 6:1–6,30 Amalek, and their Midianite allies, destroy Israelite farms "as far as Gaza", inducing a famine. They also help the Midianites wage wars against Israel, according to Judges 6:32–3431 and Judges 7:11–13.32
  • In 1 Samuel 15:1–9,33 Samuel identifies Amalek as the enemy of Israelites, saying "Thus says the Lord of hosts: I will punish Amalek for what he did to Israel, how he ambushed him on the way when he came up from Egypt," a reference to Exodus.34 God then commands Saul to destroy the Amalekites, by killing man, woman, infant and suckling.35 This massacre is believed to be a retelling of the raids in 1 Samuel 14:48,3637 although it additionally specifies that it occurred in the "city of Amalek", which was believed to be the "principal place of arms"38 or the "metropolis" of Amalek.39 In 1 Samuel 15:33,40 Samuel identifies King Agag of Amalek as an enemy and killer, saying "As your sword has made women childless, so shall your mother be childless among women."
  • In 1 Samuel 27:8–9,41 David and his men conduct raids against the Amalekites and their Geshurite and Gezirite allies. He kills every man and woman but takes sheep, cattle, donkey, camels, and clothing. These Amalekites were theorized to be refugees who fled from Saul or a separate Amalekite faction that dwelt to the south of Israel. Gili Kluger believes these narratives were anti-Saul propaganda, designed to make him appear weak compared to David, since no losses were attributed to David.42
  • According to 1 Samuel 30:1–2,43 the Amalekites invaded the Negev and Ziklag in the Judean/Philistine border area towards the end of the reign of King Saul, burning Ziklag and taking its citizens away into captivity. David led a successful mission against the Amalekites to recover "all that the Amalekites had carried away".44
  • In 2 Samuel 1:5–10,45 an Amalekite tells David that he found Saul leaning on his spear after the battle of Gilboa. The Amalekite claims he euthanized Saul, at Saul's request, and removed his crown. David gives orders to his men to kill the Amalekite for killing the anointed king, believing him to be guilty by admission.46
  • In 1 Chronicles 4:43,47 the Simeonites kill the remaining survivors of Amalek and live in their settlements.
  • In Psalm 83:7,48 Amalek joins Israel's other historic enemies in annihilating Israel. Their attempts are thwarted by God. Although most scholars believe the passage refers to a real historical event, they are unsure which event it should be identified with.49 One likely answer is that it occurred during the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the 9th to 7th centuries BC.50

Interpretation

Judaism

In the Mishneh Torah, Maimonides derived three commandments, two positive and one negative, related to references to Amalek in the Torah:

#TypeCommandmentSource
59NegativeNot to forget the wicked deeds which Amalek perpetrated against us51"Do not forget" (Deut. 25:19)
188PositiveTo exterminate the seed of Amalek52"You shall blot out the memory of Amalek" (Deut. 25:19)
189PositiveTo constantly remember what Amalek did to us53"Remember what Amalek did to you" (Deut. 25:17)

Many rabbinic authorities such as Maimonides ruled that the commandment only applies to a Jewish king or an organized community, and cannot be performed by an individual.54 According to Rashi, the Amalekites were sorcerers who could transform themselves to resemble animals, in order to avoid capture. Thus, in 1 Samuel 15:3, it was considered necessary to destroy the livestock when destroying Amalek.55 According to Haggahot Maimuniyyot, the commandment only applies to the Messianic Age and not present times; medieval authorities widely support this limitation.56 According to the Midrash, every nation on Earth has a guardian angel overseeing its destiny, except for two: Israel rejected archangel Michael as its guardian, in favor of God himself. The other is Amalek, whose guardian angel is the foremost angel of evil, Satan. The final war will be fought between the children of God and the children of Satan, between good and evil. This is possibly why the 188th commandment exists: to wipe out Amalek completely, male and female, young and old, sparing none, since evil has no future. However, one obscure prophecy states that all nations will eventually worship God alone, which raises the question of how there can be a Third Temple when Amalek is annihilated. The Midrash state there is no quandary, given the last Amalekite is a convert to Judaism.57

Maimonides elaborates that when the Jewish people wage war against Amalek, they must request the Amalekites to accept the Seven Laws of Noah and pay a tax to the Jewish kingdom. If they refuse, they are to be executed.58

Other Talmudic commentators argued that the calls to spare no Amalekite or "blot out their memory" were metaphorical59 and did not require the actual killing of Amalekites. Samson Raphael Hirsch said that the command was to destroy "the remembrance of Amalek" rather than actual Amalekites.60 Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter interpreted the command as thoroughly hating Amalek without performing any physical action.61 Yisrael Meir Kagan said that God would perform the elimination of Amalek and that Jews only need to remember what Amalek did to them.62

Isaac S.D. Sassoon believes that the ḥerem commands existed to prevent the Jewish community from being endangered but believes people should think twice before literally following them.63 Nathan Lopes Cardazo argues that the Torah's ethically questionable laws were intentional since they were a result of God working with an underdeveloped world. He believes that God appointed the Chazal to help humanity evolve in their understanding of the Torah.64

Christianity

Theologian Charles Ellicott explains that the Amalekites were subject to ḥerem in the Book of Samuel for incapacitation due to their 'accursed' nature and the threat they posed to the commonwealth of surrounding nations.65 Matthew Henry considers the ḥerem to be defensive warfare since the Amalekites were invaders.66 John Gill describes the ḥerem as the law of retaliation being carried out.67

According to Christian Hofreiter, almost all Christian authorities and theologians have historically interpreted the ḥerem passages literally. He states that "there is practically no historical evidence that anyone in the Great Church" viewed them as being purely an allegory. In particular, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas and John Calvin have defended a literal reading of these passages at length. Origen is sometimes cited as having viewed the ḥerem passages allegorically; Hofreiter argues that although Origen prioritized a spiritual interpretation of the Bible, he did not deny that the herem passages described historical events.68

Paul Copan argues that the ḥerem commands were hyperbolic since the passages contain merisms such as "man and woman"69 and Near Easterners valued "bravado and exaggeration" when reporting warfare.7071 Kluger believes this is an earnest attempt to absolve the Israelites, and their God, of moral responsibility. Nonetheless, she argues Copan's interpretation still "normalizes mass violence" and "hostility towards targeted groups".72

Islam

Ibn Khaldūn believed that God ordered Saul, the king of Israel, to depose the Amalekites, which caused Haman's hostility to the Jews in the Book of Esther.73

Modern academia

Some commentators have discussed the ethics of the commandment to exterminate all the Amalekites, including children, and the presumption of collective punishment.74757677 It has also been described as genocidal, according to genocide scholars like Norman Naimark.78798081

Gili Kluger of the University of Haifa states that the Israelites' desire to exterminate the Amalekites stemmed from a form of self-hatred, as they viewed the Amalekites as their "rejected son" embodying the negative qualities the Israelites saw in themselves. However, she notes that the descriptions of the Amalekites in the Hebrew Bible are surprisingly neutral and do not adequately explain why they were singled out for complete annihilation over the Egyptians and the Canaanites.82

According to Ada Taggar-Cohen of Doshisha University, ḥerem commands were not uncommon in the ancient Near East. These commands had a dual purpose: convey to an enemy that the aggressor's deity was on their side, and that the enemy deserved the deity's wrath as punishment for their "sins". They also allowed kings to pursue militarist policies without accepting moral responsibility.83

C. L. Crouch of Radboud University considers the ḥerem commands to be an exceptional component to Israelite and Judahite warfare. They were erratically applied, even in the early stages of national and ethnic identity formation, and were an extreme means to eradicate the threat of chaos, views shared by Assyrian rulers such as Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal.84

Historicity

Egyptian and Assyrian monumental inscriptions and records lack any reference to Amalek or the Amalekites, even though both recorded various tribes and peoples of the Levant. This led archaeologist Hugo Winckler to conclude that the Amalekites and the Biblical stories about them were ahistorical.85 Although archaeological research has improved knowledge about nomadic Arabs, no specific findings definitively link to Amalek.86

However, some scholars propose a connection between Amalekites and certain fortified settlements in the Negev highlands, such as Tel Masos near Beer-sheba, which is possibly equivalent to ancient Hormah,87.88 If true, Saul's campaigns against the Amalekites may have been motivated by a strategic desire to control of copper production at Tel Masos, a valuable resource for the early Israelites and their theology and rituals.89

Further archaeological evidence from sites in the Negev like Tell el-Qudeirat and Horvat Haluqim, dating to the late 11th to early 10th century BC, could corroborate with the Biblical Israelite-Amalekite confrontations during the reigns of Saul and David. Hendrik J. Bruins of Ben Gurion University of the Negev discovered that their inhabitants were semi-nomadic agro-pastoralists who lived in tents, rode camels, traded copper, and worshipped gods at masseboth shrines. Oval fortresses were built during the relevant timeframe. Still, other scholars attribute these settlements to the Edomites or Simeonites.90

Alternative theories of origin

In Genesis 14:7, the "field of the Amalekites" is mentioned, but the person who is named Amalek was not born yet.

Some commentators claim that this passage is a reference to the territory which was later inhabited by the Amalekites.91 C. Knight elaborates this concept by making a comparison: one might say "Caesar went into France", though Gaul only later became known as France.92

John Gill believes the Amalekites of Genesis 14:7 were equivalent to the Hamite-Arabian Amalekites described by Muslim scholars. He argues the Amalekites were always allied with the Canaanites who descended from Ham, were conquered by the Shemite Chedorlaomer, existed before the Edomite Amalekites thus affirming Numbers 24:20, and that the Edomites never rescued these Amalekites from Saul's campaigns due to inter-tribal feuds.93

By the 19th century, many Western theologians believed that the nation of Amalek could have flourished before the time of Abraham. Matthew George Easton theorized that the Amalekites were not the descendants of Amalek by taking a literal approach to Genesis 14:7.94 However, the modern biblical scholar Gerald L. Mattingly uses textual analysis to glean that the use of Amalekite in Genesis 14:7 is actually an anachronism,95 and in the early 19th century, Richard Watson enumerated several speculative reasons for the existence of a "more ancient Amalek" than Abraham.96

In his exegesis of Numbers 24:20, concerning Balaam's utterance: "Amalek was the first one of the nations, but his end afterward will be even his perishing", Richard Watson attempts to associate this passage to the "first one of the nations" that developed post-Flood.97 According to Samuel Cox, the Amalekites were the "first" in their hostility toward the Israelites.98

Abrahamic traditions

Jewish traditions

Amalek is the archetypal enemy of the Jews and the symbol of evil in Jewish religion and folklore.99 Nur Masalha, Elliot Horowitz, and Josef Stern suggest that the Amalekites represent an "eternally irreconciliable enemy" that wants to murder Jews. In post-biblical times, Jews associated contemporary enemies with Amalek or Haman and, occasionally, believed pre-emptive violence is acceptable against such enemies.100 Groups identified with Amalek include the Romans, Nazis, Stalinists, Islamic State,101 and bellicose Iranian leaders such as Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.102103 More metaphorically, to some Hasidic rabbis (particularly the Baal Shem Tov), Amalek represents atheism or the cynical rejection of God, which leads to unethical hedonism. This is sometimes known as the "Amalekite doctrine".104 In contemporary times, religious Jews associate Amalek with violent antisemites,105106 nihilism and Jewish doubt in God.107

During the Purim festival, the Book of Esther is read in commemoration of the salvation of Jewish people from Haman, who plotted to kill all Jews in Persian Empire. It is customary for the audience to make noise and shout whenever "Haman" is mentioned, in order to desecrate his name, based on Exodus 17:14. It is also customary to recite Deuteronomy 25:17–18 on the Shabbat before Purim. This was because Haman was considered to be an Amalekite although this label is more likely to be symbolic rather than literal.108109110 Some Iranophilic Jews interpreted Haman's Amalekite background as being anathema to both Jews and 'pure-blooded Iranians'.111

Christian traditions

Early Church fathers such as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus and Cyprian consider the defeat of Amalek in Exodus 17:8–13 to be reminiscent of Jesus defeating the powers of the devil at the cross. Origen sees the battle as an allegory of the Law mysteriously invoking Christ, who recruits strong people (i.e. Christians) to defeat the demonic Strong Man, as described in Ephesians 6:12.112

John Gill believes that Amalek is a type of antichrist that 'raises his hand against the throne of God, his tabernacle and his saints'. He believes the phrase "from generation to generation" in Exodus 17:16 specifically refers to the Messianic Age, where Amalek and other antichristian states are exterminated by the Lamb.113 Likewise, Charles Ellicott notes that the Amalekites were collectively called 'the sinners' in 1 Samuel 15:18, which was only used elsewhere for the Sodomites in Genesis 13:13.114

Carl Friedrich Keil and Franz Delitzsch state that the Amalekites were extinct by the second half of Hezekiah's reign.115

Professor Philip Jenkins notes that Christian extremists have historically labelled enemies such as Native Americans, Protestants, Catholics and Tutsis as Amalekites to justify their genocides.116 Jews and victims of the Crusades were also called Amalekites. Because of this, modern Christian scholars have re-examined the Biblical narratives that inspired these atrocities using philology, literary analysis, archaeology and historical evidence.117

Islamic traditions

Islamic commentators believe that the Amalekites were an ancient Arabian tribe. The monotheistic Ishmaelites evangelized to them in Mecca and later, they supplanted their population. However, the paganism of the Amalekites and other Arabian tribes negatively influenced the Ishmaelites, including their approach to the Kaaba.118

Adam J. Silverstein observes that most scholars who lived in the medieval Muslim world ignored the Book of Esther or they modified the details of it, despite their familiarity with the Persian Jewish community. This was caused by their attempt to reconcile the Biblical Esther with the Quranic Haman, who was the antagonist of the Exodus narrative, and Persian mythological historical traditions. Notable exceptions include Ibn Khaldūn, who affirmed the Amalekite origins of Haman and his antisemitic vendetta.119

Modern usage

Rabbis generally agree that Amalek no longer exist as a unified nation, based on the argument that Sennacherib deported and mixed the nations, so it is no longer possible to determine who is an Amalekite.120

Since the Holocaust, the phrase as it appears in Deuteronomy 25:17 is used as a call to witness. Yad Vashem, Israel's memorial to the Holocaust, features the phrase on a banner, and in letters between European Jews during the Holocaust, they plead with each other to "bear witness".121

In modern Israel

In the Israel–Palestine conflict, some Israeli politicians and extremists have compared Palestinians to Amalek, stated that the Palestinians are the Amalekites122123 or accused Arabs of exhibiting "behavior" that is "typical" of Amalekites.124 Yasser Arafat was called "the Amalek and Hitler of our generation" by 200 rabbis.125 Many in the Gush Emunim movement see Arabs as the "Amalek of today".126 One reason includes the belief that Amalek is any nation that prevents Jews from settling in the Land of Israel, which includes the Palestinians.127 During the 2014 Gaza war, a leading yeshiva identified Palestinians as the descendants of the ancient Amalekites and Philistines.128 In the past, some Jews associated Amalek with the Roman Empire and medieval Christians.129

During the 2023–24 Gaza war (beginning in October 2023), Benjamin Netanyahu said that the Israeli government was "committed to completely eliminating this evil from the world", and he also stated: "You must remember what Amalek has done to you, says our Holy Bible. And we do remember".130 At an argument to the International Court of Justice about allegations of genocide in the 2023 Israeli attack on Gaza, South Africa presented the comments as inciting genocide against the Palestinian people. Netanyahu denied that was his intention, stating the South African accusation reflected a "deep historical ignorance" since he was referring to Hamas, not Palestinians as a whole.131132

See also

Citations

Sources

Further reading

  • Sagi, Avi (1994). The Punishment of Amalek in Jewish Tradition: Coping with the Moral Problem, Harvard Theological Review Vol.87, No.3, p. 323-46.
  • Horowitz, Elliott. (1999). "From the Generation of Moses to the Generation of the Messiah: The Jews Confront “Amalek” and his Incarnations", Zion Vol. 64(4), 425–454. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23563945
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amalek. Wikiquote has quotations related to Amalek.

References

  1. "Amalek". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/amalek ↩

  2. Genesis 36:12; 1 Chronicles 1:36 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0136.htm#12 ↩

  3. Numbers 13:29 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0413.htm#29 ↩

  4. Mattingly 2000, p. 48. - Mattingly, Gerald L. (2000). "Amalek, Amalekites". Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802824004. https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA48 ↩

  5. Knight 1833, p. 411. - Knight, Charles (1833). Penny Cyclopaedia, Volumes 1-2. Great Britain. https://books.google.com/books?id=sttPAAAAMAAJ&q=amalekites&pg=PA411 ↩

  6. M. Weippert, Semitische Nomaden des zweiten Jahrtausends. Biblica vol. 55, 1974, 265-280, 427-433 ↩

  7. Patterson, David (2011). A Genealogy of Evil: Anti-Semitism from Nazism to Islamic Jihad. Cambridge University Press. pp. 43, 244. ISBN 9781139492430. 9781139492430 ↩

  8. Steiner, Richard C. (2024). "Merenptah's Israel, his Shasu militiamen, his copper caravan route, and the watering stations bearing his name at Kadesh-barnea and Me-nephtoah: Part One". In Muhs, Brian P.; Scalf, Foy D. (eds.). A Master of Secrets in the Chamber of Darkness: Egyptological Studies in Honor of Robert K. Ritner Presented on the Occasion of His Sixty-Eighth Birthday. Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures. pp. 382–383. ISBN 978-1-61491-110-4. 978-1-61491-110-4 ↩

  9. Genesis 36:12; 1 Chronicles 1:36 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0136.htm#12 ↩

  10. 1 Chronicles 1:36 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt25a01.htm#36 ↩

  11. Ginzberg, Louis (1913). The Legends of the Jews. pp. 422–423. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLVbAAAAMAAJ&q=Timna ↩

  12. For a Rabbinic explanation of Timna lineage see Kadari, Tamar (31 December 1999). "Timna, concubine of Eliphaz: Midrash and Aggadah". The Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women. Retrieved 16 January 2022. https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/timna-concubine-of-eliphaz-midrash-and-aggadah#:~:text=Timna%20was%20the%20sister%20of%20Lotan%2C%20one%20of,she%20went%20and%20became%20the%20concubine%20of%20Eliphaz ↩

  13. Feldman 2004, p. 8–9. - Feldman, Louis H (2004). Remember Amalek!: Vengeance, Zealotry, and Group Destruction in the Bible according to Philo, Pseudo-Philo, and Josephus. Hebrew Union College Press. ISBN 0878204636. ↩

  14. Genesis 36:16 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0136.htm#16 ↩

  15. Numbers 24:20 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0424.htm#20 ↩

  16. Macpherson, J. (2004) [1898]. "Amalek". In Hastings, James (ed.). A Dictionary of the Bible: Volume I (Part I: A – Cyrus). Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific. pp. 77–79. ISBN 9781410217226. 9781410217226 ↩

  17. Rashi [1] /wiki/Rashi ↩

  18. "Amalekite". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/amalekite ↩

  19. Mills 1997, p. 21. - Mills, Watson E. (1997). "Amalek/Amalekites". In Roger Bullard (ed.). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible (3rd and corr. print. ed.). Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865543737. https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&q=amalekites&pg=PA21 ↩

  20. Numbers 13:29 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0413.htm#29 ↩

  21. Mattingly 2000, p. 48. - Mattingly, Gerald L. (2000). "Amalek, Amalekites". Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802824004. https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA48 ↩

  22. Mills 1997, p. 21. - Mills, Watson E. (1997). "Amalek/Amalekites". In Roger Bullard (ed.). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible (3rd and corr. print. ed.). Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865543737. https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&q=amalekites&pg=PA21 ↩

  23. Deuteronomy 25:17–19 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0525.htm#17 ↩

  24. Deuteronomy 7:1–16 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0507.htm#1 ↩

  25. Deuteronomy 25:16–18 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0525.htm#16 ↩

  26. 1 Samuel 15 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a15.htm#1 ↩

  27. Numbers 14:45 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0414.htm#45 ↩

  28. Judges 3:13 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0703.htm#13 ↩

  29. Judges 10:11–13 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0710.htm#11 ↩

  30. Judges 6:1–6 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0706.htm#1 ↩

  31. Judges 6:32–34 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0706.htm#32 ↩

  32. Judges 7:11–13 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0707.htm#11 ↩

  33. 1 Samuel 15:1–9 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a15.htm#1 ↩

  34. 1 Samuel 15:2 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a15.htm#2 ↩

  35. 1 Samuel 15:3 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a15.htm#3 ↩

  36. 1 Samuel 14:48 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a14.htm#48 ↩

  37. "1 Samuel 15: Matthew Poole Commentary". Biblehub. 2024. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240123042732/https://biblehub.com/commentaries/poole/1_samuel/14.htm ↩

  38. "1 Samuel 15: Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers". Biblehub. Archived from the original on 2014-11-08. https://biblehub.com/commentaries/ellicott/1_samuel/15.htm ↩

  39. "1 Samuel 15: Benson Commentary". Biblehub. 2024. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240123080146/https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/1_samuel/15.htm ↩

  40. 1 Samuel 15:33 https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Samuel+15:33&version=nkjv ↩

  41. 1 Samuel 27:8–9 https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Samuel%2027:8–9&version=nrsv ↩

  42. Kugler 2020. - Kugler, Gili (2020). "Metaphysical Hatred and Sacred Genocide: The Questionable Role of Amalek in Biblical Literature". Journal of Genocide Research. 23: 1–16. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1827781. S2CID 228959516. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623528.2020.1827781 ↩

  43. 1 Samuel 30:1–2 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a30.htm#1 ↩

  44. 1 Samuel 30:9–20 https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Samuel+30:9–20&version=nkjv ↩

  45. 2 Samuel 1:5–10 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08b01.htm#5 ↩

  46. 2 Samuel 1:16 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08b01.htm#16 ↩

  47. 1 Chronicles 4:43 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt25a04.htm#43 ↩

  48. Psalm 83:7 https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt2683.htm#7 ↩

  49. Black, Matthew, editor (1962), Peake's Commentary on the Bible, Camden, NJ: Thomas Nelson and Sons /wiki/Peake%27s_Commentary_on_the_Bible ↩

  50. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990. ISBN 0-13-614934-0. /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

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  53. "Mishneh Torah, Positive Mitzvot". Sefaria. Retrieved 15 January 2024. https://www.sefaria.org/Deuteronomy.25.18?lang=bi&aliyot=0&p2=Mishneh_Torah%2C_Positive_Mitzvot.189 ↩

  54. Maimonides (Sefer Hamitzvot, end of positive commandments), Nachmanides (Commentary to Exodus 17:16), Sefer HaYereim (435), Hagahot Maimoniyot (Hilchot Melachim 5:5) /wiki/Maimonides ↩

  55. Rashi, 1 Samuel 15:3 commentary, The Rubin Edition, ISBN 1-57819-333-8, p. 93 /wiki/Rashi ↩

  56. Klapper, Aryeh (4 March 2020). "How Not to Talk About Amalek". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 2020-03-04. Retrieved 16 January 2022. https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/how-not-to-talk-about-amalek/ ↩

  57. THE MIDRASH SAYS, Copyright 1980 Rabbi Moshe Weissman, Brooklyn, NY. Benei Yakov Publications 1742 E.7th St. Brooklyn, NY 11223. ↩

  58. Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Melachim uMilchamot, 6:1 and 6:4 /wiki/Mishneh_Torah ↩

  59. Kampeas, Ron (2024-01-16). "Netanyahu rejects South Africa's claim that his quote about 'Amalek' was a call to genocide". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 13 February 2024. https://www.jta.org/2024/01/16/israel/netanyahu-rejects-south-africas-claim-that-his-quote-about-amalek-was-a-call-to-genocide ↩

  60. Commentary to Deuteronomy 25 ↩

  61. Shemot Zachor 646 ↩

  62. Introduction to positive commandments, Beer Mayim Hayim, letter Alef ↩

  63. Sassoon, Isaac S.D. (May 14, 2015). "Obliterating Cherem". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on February 9, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240209001511/https://www.thetorah.com/article/obliterating-cherem ↩

  64. Cardazo, Nathan Lopes (October 19, 2016). "The Deliberately Flawed Divine Torah". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240212110948/https://www.thetorah.com/article/the-deliberately-flawed-divine-torah ↩

  65. "1 Samuel 15: Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers". Biblehub. Archived from the original on 2014-11-08. https://biblehub.com/commentaries/ellicott/1_samuel/15.htm ↩

  66. "1 Samuel 14: Henry's Complete Commentary on the Bible". StudyLight.org. 2022. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240123041504/https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/mhm/1-samuel-14.html#verses-47 ↩

  67. "1 Samuel 15: Gill's Exposition". Biblehub. Archived from the original on 2013-12-17. https://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/1_samuel/15.htm ↩

  68. Hofreiter, Christian (16 February 2018). Making Sense of Old Testament Genocide: Christian Interpretations of Herem Passages. Oxford University Press. pp. 247–248. ISBN 978-0-19-253900-7. 978-0-19-253900-7 ↩

  69. Copan, Paul (2011). Is God a Moral Monster? Making Sense of the Old Testament God. Baker Books. pp. 175–176. ISBN 978-0801072758. 978-0801072758 ↩

  70. Copan, Paul (Fall 2010). "How Could God Command Killing the Canaanites?". Enrichment Journal: 138–143. ↩

  71. Copan, Paul (2022). Is God a Vindictive Bully? Reconciling Portrayals of God in the Old and New Testaments. Baker Academic. p. 205. ISBN 978-1540964557. 978-1540964557 ↩

  72. Kugler 2020. - Kugler, Gili (2020). "Metaphysical Hatred and Sacred Genocide: The Questionable Role of Amalek in Biblical Literature". Journal of Genocide Research. 23: 1–16. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1827781. S2CID 228959516. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623528.2020.1827781 ↩

  73. Silverstein, Adam J. (2018). Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands. Oxford University Press. pp. 39–63. ISBN 978-0198797227. 978-0198797227 ↩

  74. Harris, Michael J. Divine Command Ethics: Jewish and Christian perspectives. pp. 137–138. ↩

  75. Elkins, Dov Peretz; Treu, Abigail. The Bible's Top Fifty Ideas: The essential concepts everyone should know. pp. 315–316. ↩

  76. Sorabji, Richard; Rodin, David. The Ethics of War: Shared problems in different traditions. p. 98. ↩

  77. Rogerson, John William; Carroll, M. Daniel. Theory and Practice in Old Testament Ethics. p. 92. ↩

  78. Naimark, Norman M. (2017). Genocide: A World History. Oxford University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-0-19-976526-3. 978-0-19-976526-3 ↩

  79. Morriston, Wes (2012). "Ethical Criticism of the Bible: The Case of Divinely Mandated Genocide" (PDF). Sophia. 51 (1): 117–135. doi:10.1007/s11841-011-0261-5. S2CID 159560414. https://spot.colorado.edu/~morristo/divinely-mandated-genocide.pdf ↩

  80. Freeman, Michael (1994). "Religion, nationalism and genocide: ancient Judaism revisited". European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie / Europäisches Archiv für Soziologie. 35 (2): 259–282. doi:10.1017/S000397560000686X. ISSN 0003-9756. JSTOR 23997469. S2CID 170860040. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23997469 ↩

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  83. Taggar-Cohen, Ada (October 6, 2022). "War at the Command of the Gods". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on February 9, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240209015324/https://www.thetorah.com/article/war-at-the-command-of-the-gods ↩

  84. Crouch, C. L. (2009). War and Ethics in the Ancient Near East: Military Violence in Light of Cosmology and History (1st ed.). De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110223521. ISBN 978-3110223514. 978-3110223514 ↩

  85. Singer, Isidore (1901). The Jewish encyclopedia: a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times to the present day (2004 reprint ed.). Cornell University Library. ISBN 978-1112115349. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) 978-1112115349 ↩

  86. Mattingly 2000, p. 48. - Mattingly, Gerald L. (2000). "Amalek, Amalekites". Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802824004. https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA48 ↩

  87. Aharon Kempinski, "Tel Masos: Its Importance in Relation to the Settlement of the Tribes of Israel in the Northern Negev," Expedition Magazine vol. 20, issue 4 1978. https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/tel-masos/ ↩

  88. Mattingly 2000, p. 49. - Mattingly, Gerald L. (2000). "Amalek, Amalekites". Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802824004. https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA48 ↩

  89. Nissim Amzallag, "A Metallurgical Perspective on the Birth of Ancient Israel," Entangled Religions 12.2 (2021) /wiki/Nissim_Amzallag ↩

  90. Bruins, Hendrik J. (2022). "Masseboth Shrine at Horvat Haluqim: Amalekites in the Negev Highlands-Sinai Region? Evaluating the Evidence" (PDF). Negev, Dead Sea and Arava Studies. 14 (2–4): 121–142. https://www.adssc.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/journal14-3-11.pdf.pdf ↩

  91. Including Rashi /wiki/Rashi ↩

  92. Knight 1833, p. 411. - Knight, Charles (1833). Penny Cyclopaedia, Volumes 1-2. Great Britain. https://books.google.com/books?id=sttPAAAAMAAJ&q=amalekites&pg=PA411 ↩

  93. "Genesis 14 Gill's Exposition". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240212054958/https://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/genesis/14.htm ↩

  94. Easton 1894, p. 35, Am'alekite. - Easton, Matthew George (1894). Illustrated Bible Dictionary (2nd ed.). London: T. Nelson. https://books.google.com/books?id=KspEAAAAYAAJ&q=amalek&pg=PP31 ↩

  95. Mattingly 2000, p. 48. - Mattingly, Gerald L. (2000). "Amalek, Amalekites". Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802824004. https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA48 ↩

  96. Watson 1832, p. 50. - Watson, Richard (1832). A Biblical and theological dictionary. London: John Mason. https://books.google.com/books?id=LcJzS1HTU-kC&q=amalekites&pg=PA50 ↩

  97. Watson 1832, p. 50. - Watson, Richard (1832). A Biblical and theological dictionary. London: John Mason. https://books.google.com/books?id=LcJzS1HTU-kC&q=amalekites&pg=PA50 ↩

  98. Cox 1884, pp. 125–126. - Cox, Samuel (1884). Balaam: An Exposition and a Study. London: K. Paul, Trench, & Company. p. 125. https://archive.org/details/balaamanexposit00coxgoog ↩

  99. Britt, Brian; Lipton, Diana; Soltes, Ori Z.; Walfish, Barry Dov (2010). "Amalek, Amalekites. II. Judaism". Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-018355-9. 978-3-11-018355-9 ↩

  100. * Masalha, Nur (2000). Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: the politics of expansion. Pluto Press. pp. 129–131. Stern, Josef (2004). "Maimonides on Amalek, Self-Corrective Mechanisms, and the War against Idolatry"". In Hartman, David; Malino, Jonathan W. (eds.). Judaism and modernity: the religious philosophy of David Hartman. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 360–362. Hunter, Alastair G. (2003). "Denominating Amalek: Racist stereotyping in the Bible and the Justification of Discrimination". In Bekkenkamp, Jonneke; Sherwood, Yvonne (eds.). Sanctified aggression: legacies of biblical and post-biblical vocabularies. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 99–105. ↩

  101. Horowitz, Elliott (2018). Reckless Rites: Purim and the Legacy of Jewish Violence. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-0-691-19039-6. 978-0-691-19039-6 ↩

  102. Roth, Daniel. "Shabbat Zachor: "Remember what Amalek did to you!" But why did he do it? Can we reconcile with our eternal sworn enemies?" Pardes from Jerusalem, 18 Feb. 2018. Elmad by Pardes. https://elmad.pardes.org/2018/02/shabbat-zachor-remember-what-amalek-did-to-you-but-why-did-he-do-it-can-we-reconcile-with-our-eternal-sworn-enemies/ ↩

  103. Zaimov, Stoyan (April 29, 2017). "ISIS a Reenactment of Biblical War Between Israel and the Amalekites, Military Analysts Say". Christian Post. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. https://www.christianpost.com/news/isis-reenactment-biblical-war-israel-amalekites.html ↩

  104. Koperwas, Josh. "Destroying Amalek: Removing Doubt & Insecurity". Sefaria. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240123050025/https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/8012?lang=bi ↩

  105. * Masalha, Nur (2000). Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: the politics of expansion. Pluto Press. pp. 129–131. Stern, Josef (2004). "Maimonides on Amalek, Self-Corrective Mechanisms, and the War against Idolatry"". In Hartman, David; Malino, Jonathan W. (eds.). Judaism and modernity: the religious philosophy of David Hartman. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 360–362. Hunter, Alastair G. (2003). "Denominating Amalek: Racist stereotyping in the Bible and the Justification of Discrimination". In Bekkenkamp, Jonneke; Sherwood, Yvonne (eds.). Sanctified aggression: legacies of biblical and post-biblical vocabularies. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 99–105. ↩

  106. "Esther 3 Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges". Biblehub. Archived from the original on Jul 2, 2023. https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/esther/3.htm ↩

  107. Koperwas, Josh. "Destroying Amalek: Removing Doubt & Insecurity". Sefaria. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240123050025/https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/8012?lang=bi ↩

  108. Finley, Mordecai (21 February 2018). "Unmasking Purim, Fighting Amalek: Behind the whimsy of this holiday lie some deep lessons for living". Jewish Journal. Retrieved 22 February 2018. http://jewishjournal.com/culture/religion/purim/231046/unmasking-purim-fighting-amalek-behind-whimsy-holiday-lie-deep-lessons-living/ ↩

  109. "Esther 3 Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges". Biblehub. Archived from the original on Jul 2, 2023. https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/esther/3.htm ↩

  110. Hirsch, Emil; Seligsohn, M.; Schechter, Solomon (1904). "HAMAN THE AGAGITE". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. p. 189–190. Retrieved 13 February 2017 http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7124-haman-the-agagite ↩

  111. Silverstein, Adam J. (2018). Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands. Oxford University Press. pp. 39–63. ISBN 978-0198797227. 978-0198797227 ↩

  112. Paczkowski, Mieczysław (2014). "Amalek and the amalekites in the ancient christian literature". Teologia i Człowiek. 26 (2): 137–155. doi:10.12775/TiCz.2014.021 – via ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280211465 ↩

  113. "Exodus 17 Gill's Exposition". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240212053408/https://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/exodus/17.htm ↩

  114. "1 Samuel 15: Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers". Biblehub. Archived from the original on 2014-11-08. https://biblehub.com/commentaries/ellicott/1_samuel/15.htm ↩

  115. "1 Chronicles 4 Keil and Delitzsch OT Commentary". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240212081010/https://biblehub.com/commentaries/kad/1_chronicles/4.htm ↩

  116. Jenkins, Philip (2013). Laying Down the Sword: Why We Can't Ignore the Bible's Violent Verses. HarperCollins Religious US. ISBN 978-0061990724. 978-0061990724 ↩

  117. Kugler 2020. - Kugler, Gili (2020). "Metaphysical Hatred and Sacred Genocide: The Questionable Role of Amalek in Biblical Literature". Journal of Genocide Research. 23: 1–16. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1827781. S2CID 228959516. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623528.2020.1827781 ↩

  118. Athamina, Khalil (2005). "Abraham in Islamic Perspective Reflections on the Development of Monotheism in Pre-Islamic Arabia". Der Islam. 81 (2): 193–196. doi:10.1515/islm.2004.81.2.184. S2CID 170567885 – via De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.2004.81.2.184 ↩

  119. Silverstein, Adam J. (2018). Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands. Oxford University Press. pp. 39–63. ISBN 978-0198797227. 978-0198797227 ↩

  120. Eynei Kol Ḥai, 73, on Sanhedrin 96b. Also Minchat Chinuch, parshat Ki Tetze, mitzvah 434. ↩

  121. Kampeas, Ron (2024-01-16). "Netanyahu rejects South Africa's claim that his quote about 'Amalek' was a call to genocide". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 13 February 2024. https://www.jta.org/2024/01/16/israel/netanyahu-rejects-south-africas-claim-that-his-quote-about-amalek-was-a-call-to-genocide ↩

  122. Goldberg, Jeffrey (May 24, 2004). "Among the Settlers". The New Yorker. Retrieved 14 November 2023. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2004/05/31/among-the-settlers ↩

  123. Lanard, Noah. "The Dangerous History Behind Netanyahu's Amalek Rhetoric". Mother Jones. Retrieved 15 November 2023. https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2023/11/benjamin-netanyahu-amalek-israel-palestine-gaza-saul-samuel-old-testament/ ↩

  124. Elliott Horowitz (2018). Reckless Rites: Purim and the Legacy of Jewish Violence. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–4. /wiki/Princeton_University_Press ↩

  125. Elliott Horowitz (2018). Reckless Rites: Purim and the Legacy of Jewish Violence. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–4. /wiki/Princeton_University_Press ↩

  126. Nur Masalha. Imperial Israel and the Palestinians. Pluto Press. p. 113. /wiki/Pluto_Press ↩

  127. Defining Israel:The Jewish State, Democracy, and the Law. Hebrew Union College Press. p. 281. /wiki/Hebrew_Union_College_Press ↩

  128. Defining Israel:The Jewish State, Democracy, and the Law. Hebrew Union College Press. p. 281. /wiki/Hebrew_Union_College_Press ↩

  129. Elliott Horowitz (2018). Reckless Rites: Purim and the Legacy of Jewish Violence. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–4. /wiki/Princeton_University_Press ↩

  130. "Netanyahu invokes 'Amalek' narrative in speech about expanding ground operation in Gaza". https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/live-blog/israel-hamas-war-gaza-attacks-hamas-idf-netanyahu-long-fight-rcna122651#rcrd23808 ↩

  131. "PM's office says it's 'preposterous' to say his invoking Amalek was a genocide call". Times of Israel. 16 January 2024. https://www.timesofisrael.com/pms-office-says-its-preposterous-to-say-invoking-amalek-was-a-genocide-call/ ↩

  132. "Harsh Israeli rhetoric against Palestinians becomes central to South Africa's genocide case". Associated Press. 18 January 2024. https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-south-africa-genocide-hate-speech-97a9e4a84a3a6bebeddfb80f8a030724 ↩