Hydrogen peroxide

<h2 id="properties">Properties</h2>
The boiling point of H2O2 has been extrapolated as being 150.2 °C (302.4 °F), approximately 50 °C (90 °F) higher than water. In practice, hydrogen peroxide will undergo potentially explosive <a href="/facts/Thermal_decomposition/Qqx9RqkW">thermal decomposition</a> if heated to this temperature. It may be safely distilled at lower temperatures under reduced pressure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a>
Hydrogen peroxide forms stable <a href="/facts/Adduct/vBpTmotm">adducts</a> with <a href="/facts/Urea/6j84AoCG">urea</a> (<a href="/facts/Hydrogen_peroxide%E2%80%93urea/NdqaQACo">hydrogen peroxide–urea</a>), sodium carbonate (<a href="/facts/Sodium_percarbonate/tdPKeNvI">sodium percarbonate</a>) and other compounds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> An acid-base adduct with <a href="/facts/Triphenylphosphine_oxide/uoVWeSVA">triphenylphosphine oxide</a> is a useful "carrier" for H2O2 in some reactions.

<h3>Structure</h3>

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a nonplanar molecule with (twisted) C2 <a href="/facts/Molecular_symmetry/BrDxAkTK">symmetry</a>; this was first shown by <a href="/facts/Paul-Antoine_Gigu%C3%A8re/zl6a8wVu">Paul-Antoine Giguère</a> in 1950 using <a href="/facts/Infrared_spectroscopy/u1Hzx617">infrared spectroscopy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> Although the O−O bond is a <a href="/facts/Single_bond/8qz02fEl">single bond</a>, the molecule has a relatively high <a href="/facts/Rotational_barrier/JflrT5Ws">rotational barrier</a> of 386 <a href="/facts/Inverse_centimeter/mlrDdsFD">cm−1</a> (4.62 <a href="/facts/Kilojoule/9ndq9jD2">kJ</a>/<a href="/facts/Mole_(chemistry)/kCMFwCc0">mol</a>) for rotation between <a href="/facts/Enantiomer/wjPv5J3y">enantiomers</a> via the <a href="/facts/Cis%E2%80%93trans_isomerism/vqlchJly">trans</a> configuration, and 2460 cm−1 (29.4 kJ/mol) via the <a href="/facts/Cis%E2%80%93trans_isomerism/vqlchJly">cis</a> configuration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> These barriers are proposed to be due to <a href="/facts/Repulsion_(chemistry)/cthgtKKj">repulsion</a> between the <a href="/facts/Lone_pair/Q6kEAC4g">lone pairs</a> of the adjacent oxygen atoms and dipolar effects between the two O–H bonds. For comparison, the rotational barrier for <a href="/facts/Ethane/BGCzc6yh">ethane</a> is 1040 cm−1 (12.4 kJ/mol).
The approximately 100° <a href="/facts/Dihedral_angle/C9WEJsuS">dihedral angle</a> between the two O–H bonds makes the molecule <a href="/facts/Chiral/hjx0eGrB">chiral</a>. It is the smallest and simplest molecule to exhibit <a href="/facts/Enantiomer/wjPv5J3y">enantiomerism</a>. It has been proposed that the <a href="/facts/Stereospecific/BT4em18V">enantiospecific</a> interactions of one rather than the other may have led to amplification of one enantiomeric form of <a href="/facts/Ribonucleic_acid/HxPeNfNj">ribonucleic acids</a> and therefore an origin of <a href="/facts/Homochirality/JjtpmTWx">homochirality</a> in an <a href="/facts/RNA_world/o9qmTdd1">RNA world</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
The molecular structures of gaseous and <a href="/facts/Crystalline/e2R2mk3E">crystalline</a> H2O2 are significantly different. This difference is attributed to the effects of <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_bonding/85V86IIg">hydrogen bonding</a>, which is absent in the gaseous state.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> Crystals of H2O2 are <a href="/facts/Tetragonal/12Aop255">tetragonal</a> with the <a href="/facts/Space_group/2XQx0J7M">space group</a> D44 or P41212.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a>

<h3>Aqueous solutions</h3>
In <a href="/facts/Aqueous_solution/eRNr3MH2">aqueous solutions</a>, hydrogen peroxide forms a <a href="/facts/Eutectic/UFbecnqo">eutectic</a> mixture, exhibiting <a href="/facts/Freezing-point_depression/B5fSARUv">freezing-point depression</a> down as low as –56 °C; pure water has a freezing point of 0 °C and pure hydrogen peroxide of –0.43 °C. The boiling point of the same mixtures is also depressed in relation with the mean of both boiling points (125.1 °C). It occurs at 114 °C. This boiling point is 14 °C greater than that of pure water and 36.2 °C less than that of pure hydrogen peroxide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>

<li>

</li>

<li>
Density of aqueous solution of H2O2<table><tbody><tr><th>H2O2 (<a href="/facts/W/w/YMIH9egn">w/w</a>)</th><th>Density(g/cm3)</th><th>Temp.(°C)</th></tr><tr><td>3%</td><td>1.0095</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>27%</td><td>1.10</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>35%</td><td>1.13</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>50%</td><td>1.20</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>70%</td><td>1.29</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>75%</td><td>1.33</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>96%</td><td>1.42</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>98%</td><td>1.43</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>100%</td><td>1.45</td><td>20</td></tr></tbody></table>
</li>

Hydrogen peroxide is most commonly available as a solution in water. For consumers, it is usually available from pharmacies at 3 and 6 <a href="/facts/Wt%25/YMIH9egn">wt%</a> concentrations. The concentrations are sometimes described in terms of the volume of oxygen gas generated; one milliliter of a 20-volume solution generates twenty milliliters of oxygen gas when completely decomposed. For laboratory use, 30 wt% solutions are most common. Commercial grades from 70% to 98% are also available, but due to the potential of solutions of more than 68% hydrogen peroxide to be converted entirely to steam and oxygen (with the temperature of the steam increasing as the concentration increases above 68%) these grades are potentially far more hazardous and require special care in dedicated storage areas. Buyers must typically allow inspection by commercial manufacturers.

<h3>Comparison with analogues</h3>
Hydrogen peroxide has several structural analogues with HmX−XHn bonding arrangements (water also shown for comparison). It has the highest (theoretical) boiling point of this series (X = O, S, N, P). Its melting point is also fairly high, being comparable to that of <a href="/facts/Hydrazine/G7P5ITzU">hydrazine</a> and water, with only <a href="/facts/Hydroxylamine/BXzuazgo">hydroxylamine</a> crystallising significantly more readily, indicative of particularly strong hydrogen bonding. <a href="/facts/Diphosphane/hFQJA6fQ">Diphosphane</a> and <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_disulfide/dqvSLRNJ">hydrogen disulfide</a> exhibit only weak hydrogen bonding and have little chemical similarity to hydrogen peroxide. Structurally, the analogues all adopt similar skewed structures, due to repulsion between adjacent <a href="/facts/Lone_pair/Q6kEAC4g">lone pairs</a>.

Properties of H2O2 and its analoguesValues marked * are extrapolated<table><tbody><tr><th>Name</th><th>Formula</th><th><a href="/facts/Molar_mass/m2laJErl">Molar mass</a>(g/mol)</th><th>Meltingpoint (°C)</th><th>Boilingpoint (°C)</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Properties_of_water/FFsl65l1">Water</a></td><td>HOH</td><td>18.02</td><td>0.00</td><td>99.98</td></tr><tr><td>Hydrogen peroxide</td><td>HOOH</td><td>34.01</td><td>−0.43</td><td>150.2*</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Hydrogen_disulfide/dqvSLRNJ">Hydrogen disulfide</a></td><td>HSSH</td><td>66.15</td><td>−89.6</td><td>70.7</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Hydrazine/G7P5ITzU">Hydrazine</a></td><td>H2NNH2</td><td>32.05</td><td>2</td><td>114</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Hydroxylamine/BXzuazgo">Hydroxylamine</a></td><td>NH2OH</td><td>33.03</td><td>33</td><td>58*</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Diphosphane/hFQJA6fQ">Diphosphane</a></td><td>H2PPH2</td><td>65.98</td><td>−99</td><td>63.5*</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2 id="natural-occurrence">Natural occurrence</h2>
Hydrogen peroxide is produced by various biological processes mediated by <a href="/facts/Enzyme/DSI1Fh7y">enzymes</a>.
Hydrogen peroxide has been detected in surface water, in groundwater, and in the <a href="/facts/Atmosphere/oUpLaGRF">atmosphere</a>. It can also form when water is exposed to UV light.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> Sea water contains 0.5 to 14 μg/L of hydrogen peroxide, and freshwater contains 1 to 30 μg/L.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> Concentrations in air are about 0.4 to 4 μg/m3, varying over several <a href="/facts/Orders_of_magnitude/cWzRP2dM">orders of magnitude</a> depending in conditions such as season, altitude, daylight and water vapor content. In rural nighttime air it is less than 0.014 μg/m3, and in moderate <a href="/facts/Smog/5FYzS8sT">photochemical smog</a> it is 14 to 42 μg/m3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>
The amount of hydrogen peroxide in biological systems can be assayed using a <a href="/facts/Enzyme_assay/3SHu9GkN">fluorometric assay</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>

<h2 id="discovery">Discovery</h2>
<a href="/facts/Alexander_von_Humboldt/5AuxyDbh">Alexander von Humboldt</a> is sometimes said to have been the first to report the first synthetic peroxide, <a href="/facts/Barium_peroxide/55VvmrUs">barium peroxide</a>, in 1799 as a by-product of his attempts to decompose air, although this is disputed due to von Humboldt's ambiguous wording.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> Nineteen years later <a href="/facts/Louis_Jacques_Th%C3%A9nard/Le32ptEm">Louis Jacques Thénard</a> recognized that this compound could be used for the preparation of a previously unknown compound, which he described as eau oxygénée ("oxygenated water") — subsequently known as hydrogen peroxide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>
An improved version of Thénard's process used <a href="/facts/Hydrochloric_acid/HqItJlUT">hydrochloric acid</a>, followed by addition of <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulfuric acid</a> to precipitate the <a href="/facts/Barium_sulfate/QrjdoS1k">barium sulfate</a> byproduct. This process was used from the end of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>
The bleaching effect of peroxides and their salts on <a href="/facts/Natural_dye/qry80lhk">natural dyes</a> had been known since Thénard's experiments in the 1820s, but early attempts of industrial production of peroxides failed. The first plant producing hydrogen peroxide was built in 1873 in <a href="/facts/Berlin/pMTIRNXK">Berlin</a>. The discovery of the synthesis of hydrogen peroxide by <a href="/facts/Electrolysis/pU75nCDI">electrolysis</a> with <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulfuric acid</a> introduced the more efficient electrochemical method. It was first commercialized in 1908 in <a href="/facts/Wei%C3%9Fenstein/Y7dUBAXT">Weißenstein</a>, <a href="/facts/Carinthia_(state)/KYdoqzvx">Carinthia</a>, Austria. The <a href="/facts/Anthraquinone_process/jqxuS9Y3">anthraquinone process</a>, which is still used, was developed during the 1930s by the German chemical manufacturer <a href="/facts/IG_Farben/3cTsQw87">IG Farben</a> in <a href="/facts/Ludwigshafen/XPNCNgFs">Ludwigshafen</a>. The increased demand and improvements in the synthesis methods resulted in the rise of the annual production of hydrogen peroxide from 35,000 tonnes in 1950, to over 100,000 tonnes in 1960, to 300,000 tonnes by 1970; by 1998 it reached 2.7 million tonnes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>
Early attempts failed to produce neat hydrogen peroxide. Anhydrous hydrogen peroxide was first obtained by <a href="/facts/Vacuum_distillation/ep7NsYJ0">vacuum distillation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>
Determination of the molecular structure of hydrogen peroxide proved to be very difficult. In 1892, the Italian physical chemist Giacomo Carrara (1864–1925) determined its molecular mass by <a href="/facts/Freezing-point_depression/B5fSARUv">freezing-point depression</a>, which confirmed that its molecular formula is H2O2.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> H2O=O seemed to be just as possible as the modern structure, and as late as in the middle of the 20th century at least half a dozen hypothetical isomeric variants of two main options seemed to be consistent with the available evidence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> In 1934, the English mathematical physicist <a href="/facts/William_Penney,_Baron_Penney/koKgqgmL">William Penney</a> and the Scottish physicist <a href="/facts/Gordon_Sutherland/DaqN5jaj">Gordon Sutherland</a> proposed a molecular structure for hydrogen peroxide that was very similar to the presently accepted one.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>

<h2 id="production">Production</h2>

In 1994, world production of H2O2 was around 1.9 million tonnes and grew to 2.2 million in 2006,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> most of which was at a concentration of 70% or less. In that year, bulk 30% H2O2 sold for around 0.54 <a href="/facts/USD/naEEDUhC">USD</a>/<a href="/facts/Kilogram/lU2zbPk8">kg</a>, equivalent to US$1.50/kg (US$0.68/<a href="/facts/Pound_(mass)/BNIGRRDI">lb</a>) on a "100% basis".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>
Today, hydrogen peroxide is manufactured almost exclusively by the <a href="/facts/Anthraquinone_process/jqxuS9Y3">anthraquinone process</a>, which was originally developed by <a href="/facts/BASF/cdtGr0TK">BASF</a> in 1939. It begins with the reduction of an <a href="/facts/Anthraquinone/t0BxHEpa">anthraquinone</a> (such as <a href="/facts/2-Ethylanthraquinone/YVL11aPl">2-ethylanthraquinone</a> or the 2-amyl derivative) to the corresponding anthrahydroquinone, typically by <a href="/facts/Hydrogenation/l7EzNSA7">hydrogenation</a> on a <a href="/facts/Palladium/AXMwDFxs">palladium</a> <a href="/facts/Catalysis/LPBS7TQC">catalyst</a>. In the presence of <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a>, the anthrahydroquinone then undergoes <a href="/facts/Autoxidation/2mY5fjvj">autoxidation</a>: the labile hydrogen atoms of the <a href="/facts/Hydroxy_group/1Hs2QAEv">hydroxy groups</a> transfer to the oxygen molecule, to give hydrogen peroxide and regenerating the anthraquinone. Most commercial processes achieve oxidation by bubbling <a href="/facts/Compressed_air/KEjxE7DG">compressed air</a> through a solution of the anthrahydroquinone, with the hydrogen peroxide then <a href="/facts/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction/qVfck5T1">extracted</a> from the solution and the anthraquinone recycled back for successive cycles of hydrogenation and oxidation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a>
The net reaction for the anthraquinone-catalyzed process is:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>

H2 + O2 → H2O2
The economics of the process depend heavily on effective recycling of the extraction solvents, the <a href="/facts/Hydrogenation/l7EzNSA7">hydrogenation</a> catalyst and the expensive <a href="/facts/Quinone/RY00GqrL">quinone</a>.

<h3>Historical methods</h3>
Hydrogen peroxide was once prepared industrially by <a href="/facts/Hydrolysis/JTvwIHPs">hydrolysis</a> of <a href="/facts/Ammonium_persulfate/RU8oUYvg">ammonium persulfate</a>:

[NH4]2S2O8 + 2 H2O → 2 [NH4]HSO4 + H2O2
[NH4]2S2O8 was itself obtained by the <a href="/facts/Electrolysis/pU75nCDI">electrolysis</a> of a solution of <a href="/facts/Ammonium_bisulfate/314UMAby">ammonium bisulfate</a> ([NH4]HSO4) in <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulfuric acid</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a>

<h3>Other routes</h3>
Small amounts are formed by electrolysis, <a href="/facts/Photochemistry/GsXNBWon">photochemistry</a>, <a href="/facts/Electric_arc/1hUPPAG0">electric arc</a>, and related methods.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>
A commercially viable route for hydrogen peroxide via the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen favours production of water but can be stopped at the peroxide stage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> One economic obstacle has been that direct processes give a dilute solution uneconomic for transportation. None of these has yet reached a point where it can be used for industrial-scale synthesis.

<h2 id="reactions">Reactions</h2>
<h3>Acid-base</h3>
Hydrogen peroxide is about 1000 times stronger as an acid than water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>

H2O2 ⇌ H+ + HO−2 (pK = 11.65)
<h3>Disproportionation</h3>
Hydrogen peroxide disproportionates to form water and oxygen with a <a href="/facts/Standard_enthalpy_change_of_reaction/u5pffxVM">ΔHo</a> of –2884.5 <a href="/facts/Kilojoule/9ndq9jD2">kJ</a>/<a href="/facts/Kilogram/lU2zbPk8">kg</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> and a Δ<a href="/facts/Entropy/s52IXeFz">S</a> of 70.5 J/(mol·K):

2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2
The rate of decomposition increases with rise in temperature, concentration, and <a href="/facts/PH/RnSv8D7y">pH</a>. H2O2 is unstable under alkaline conditions. Decomposition is catalysed by various redox-active ions or compounds, including most <a href="/facts/Transition_metal/0slGWoLQ">transition metals</a> and their compounds (e.g. <a href="/facts/Manganese_dioxide/HRwgXlUe">manganese dioxide</a> (MnO2), <a href="/facts/Silver/xXe41BGg">silver</a>, and <a href="/facts/Platinum/qJC6lQf7">platinum</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>

<h3>Oxidation reactions</h3>
The <a href="/facts/Redox/Pyd5RVcj">redox</a> properties of hydrogen peroxide depend on pH. In acidic solutions, H2O2 is a powerful <a href="/facts/Oxidizer/1FQzB8pQ">oxidizer</a>.

<table><tbody><tr><th><a href="/facts/Oxidant/1FQzB8pQ">Oxidizingreagent</a></th><th>Reducedproduct</th><th><a href="/facts/Oxidation_potential/PqpNUgSl">Oxidationpotential</a>(V)</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Fluorine/YUV0Fb8m">F2</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hydrogen_fluoride/XfQxlqR6">HF</a></td><td>3.0</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ozone/o0E5gn2p">O3</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">O2</a></td><td>2.1</td></tr><tr><td>H2O2</td><td><a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">H2O</a></td><td>1.8</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Potassium_permanganate/nyjjuDlo">KMnO4</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Manganese_dioxide/HRwgXlUe">MnO2</a></td><td>1.7</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Chlorine_dioxide/1K7ybEdW">ClO2</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hypochlorous_acid/tGrX1C7z">HClO</a></td><td>1.5</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Chlorine/y27UwYBM">Cl2</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Chloride/m9NUaUDR">Cl−</a></td><td>1.4</td></tr></tbody></table>
<a href="/facts/Sulfite/xdppUlKA">Sulfite</a> (SO2−3) is oxidized to <a href="/facts/Sulfate/yuWVxsUf">sulfate</a> (SO2−4).

<h3>Reduction reactions</h3>
Under <a href="/facts/Alkaline/s6NqPGSP">alkaline</a> conditions, hydrogen peroxide is a reductant. When H2O2 acts as a reducing agent, <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a> gas is also produced. For example, hydrogen peroxide will reduce <a href="/facts/Sodium_hypochlorite/sp99uHHQ">sodium hypochlorite</a> and <a href="/facts/Potassium_permanganate/nyjjuDlo">potassium permanganate</a>, which is a convenient method for preparing <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a> in the laboratory:

NaOCl + H2O2 → O2 + NaCl + H2O
2 KMnO4 + 3 H2O2 → 2 MnO2 + 2 KOH + 2 H2O + 3 O2
The oxygen produced from hydrogen peroxide and sodium <a href="/facts/Hypochlorite/XMJdjAEM">hypochlorite</a> is in <a href="/facts/Singlet_oxygen/db0PsrYh">the singlet state</a>.
Hydrogen peroxide also reduces <a href="/facts/Silver_oxide/XPGcRQ2E">silver oxide</a> to <a href="/facts/Silver/xXe41BGg">silver</a>:

Ag2O + H2O2 → 2 Ag + H2O + O2
Although usually a reductant, alkaline hydrogen peroxide converts Mn(II) to the dioxide:

H2O2 + Mn2+ + 2 OH− → MnO2 + 2 H2O
In a related reaction, <a href="/facts/Potassium_permanganate/nyjjuDlo">potassium permanganate</a> is reduced to Mn2+ by acidic H2O2:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a>

2 MnO−4 + 5 H2O2 + 6 H+ → 2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O + 5 O2
<h3>Organic reactions</h3>
Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used as an <a href="/facts/Redox/Pyd5RVcj">oxidizing agent</a>. Illustrative is oxidation of <a href="/facts/Thioether/GdyEz43f">thioethers</a> to form <a href="/facts/Sulfoxide/Stk3Vnj9">sulfoxides</a>, such as conversion of <a href="/facts/Thioanisole/zQhJF3cR">thioanisole</a> to <a href="/facts/Methyl_phenyl_sulfoxide/UUV94sKo">methyl phenyl sulfoxide</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a>

Ph-S-CH3 + H2O2 → Ph-S(O)-CH3 + H2O
Alkaline hydrogen peroxide is used for <a href="/facts/Epoxidation/PLxRI7r1">epoxidation</a> of electron-deficient alkenes such as <a href="/facts/Acrylic_acid/x2l3lrI2">acrylic acid</a> derivatives,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> and for the oxidation of <a href="/facts/Alkylborane/r6NQHXYt">alkylboranes</a> to <a href="/facts/Ethanol/3lCLfBSP">alcohols</a>, the second step of <a href="/facts/Hydroboration-oxidation/hs7YsVtb">hydroboration-oxidation</a>. It is also the principal reagent in the <a href="/facts/Dakin_oxidation/f42UnE6B">Dakin oxidation</a> process.

<h3>Precursor to other peroxide compounds</h3>
Hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid, forming <a href="/facts/Hydroperoxide/w7hdgtVF">hydroperoxide</a> or <a href="/facts/Peroxide/VMU8y4xB">peroxide</a> <a href="/facts/Salt_(chemistry)/lsSKwGpn">salts</a> with many metals.
It also converts metal oxides into the corresponding peroxides. For example, upon treatment with hydrogen peroxide, <a href="/facts/Chromic_acid/jukMaHzR">chromic acid</a> (CrO3 and H2SO4) forms a blue peroxide <a href="/facts/Chromium(VI)_oxide_peroxide/SFwD47yU">CrO(O2)2</a>.

<h2 id="biochemistry">Biochemistry</h2>

<h3>Production</h3>
The aerobic oxidation of <a href="/facts/Glucose/oUSkoLCD">glucose</a> in the presence of the enzyme <a href="/facts/Glucose_oxidase/6MM8Fmf8">glucose oxidase</a> produces hydrogen peroxide. The conversion affords <a href="/facts/Gluconolactone/050TxmzD">gluconolactone</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a>

C6H12O6 + O2 → C6H10O6 + H2O2
<a href="/facts/Superoxide_dismutase/8dzGVw5K">Superoxide dismutases</a> (SOD)s are <a href="/facts/Enzyme/DSI1Fh7y">enzymes</a> that promote the <a href="/facts/Disproportionation/67QMkXrV">disproportionation</a> of <a href="/facts/Superoxide/2X2sQocn">superoxide</a> into <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a> and hydrogen peroxide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>

2 O−2 + 2 H+ → O2 + H2O2
2 H2O2 → O2 + 2 H2O
<a href="/facts/Peroxisome/sEW1RBmb">Peroxisomes</a> are <a href="/facts/Organelle/vhDFnGbs">organelles</a> found in virtually all <a href="/facts/Eukaryotic/SkwyPLMA">eukaryotic</a> cells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> They are involved in the <a href="/facts/Catabolism/CFWUdphX">catabolism</a> of <a href="/facts/Very_long_chain_fatty_acid/8cEB42jW">very long chain fatty acids</a>, <a href="/facts/Branched-chain-fatty-acid_kinase/FN6kNUaT">branched chain fatty acids</a>, <a href="/facts/D-amino_acid/dth5t8eW">D-amino acids</a>, <a href="/facts/Polyamine/VntSgncL">polyamines</a>, and biosynthesis of <a href="/facts/Plasmalogens/xuqWIClB">plasmalogens</a> and <a href="/facts/Ether_phospholipid/5oMHla5m">ether phospholipids</a>, which are found in mammalian brains and lungs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> They produce hydrogen peroxide in a process catalyzed by <a href="/facts/Flavin_adenine_dinucleotide/uzADx3ES">flavin adenine dinucleotide</a> (FAD):<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>

R-CH2-CH2-CO-SCoA + O2
 
 
 
 
 
 
 →
 
 
 FAD
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {\displaystyle {\ce {->[{\ce {FAD}}]}}}
 
 R-CH=CH-CO-SCoA + H2O2
Hydrogen peroxide arises by the degradation of <a href="/facts/Adenosine_monophosphate/D9Ryfqad">adenosine monophosphate</a>, which yields <a href="/facts/Hypoxanthine/QIyA0sQr">hypoxanthine</a>. Hypoxanthine is then oxidatively <a href="/facts/Catabolism/CFWUdphX">catabolized</a> first to <a href="/facts/Xanthine/3ARA2QCg">xanthine</a> and then to <a href="/facts/Uric_acid/gPMSfLcT">uric acid</a>, and the reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme <a href="/facts/Xanthine_oxidase/5AfnaJpl">xanthine oxidase</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a>

<a href="/facts/Hypoxanthine/QIyA0sQr">Hypoxanthine</a>

<a href="/facts/Xanthine_oxidase/5AfnaJpl">Xanthine oxidase</a>
H2O, O2
H2O2

<a href="/facts/Xanthine/3ARA2QCg">Xanthine</a>

<a href="/facts/Xanthine_oxidase/5AfnaJpl">Xanthine oxidase</a>
H2O, O2
H2O2

Degradation of hypoxanthine through xanthine to uric acid to form hydrogen peroxide
The degradation of <a href="/facts/Guanosine_monophosphate/ex8VI4dR">guanosine monophosphate</a> yields xanthine as an intermediate product which is then converted in the same way to uric acid with the formation of hydrogen peroxide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a>

<h3>Consumption</h3>
<a href="/facts/Catalase/CcJ9r5KG">Catalase</a>, another peroxisomal enzyme, uses this H2O2 to oxidize other substrates, including <a href="/facts/Phenols/xs1CtNTa">phenols</a>, <a href="/facts/Formic_acid/o6cFsbNc">formic acid</a>, <a href="/facts/Formaldehyde/Ck8RLfqk">formaldehyde</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ethanol/3lCLfBSP">alcohol</a>, by means of a peroxidation reaction:

H2O2 + R'H2 → R' + 2 H2O
thus eliminating the poisonous hydrogen peroxide in the process.
This reaction is important in liver and kidney cells, where the peroxisomes neutralize various toxic substances that enter the blood. Some of the <a href="/facts/Ethanol/3lCLfBSP">ethanol</a> humans drink is oxidized to <a href="/facts/Acetaldehyde/QllLbSUe">acetaldehyde</a> in this way.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> In addition, when excess H2O2 accumulates in the cell, catalase converts it to H2O through this reaction:

H2O2 → 0.5 O2 + H2O
<a href="/facts/Glutathione_peroxidase/Y7AQpAub">Glutathione peroxidase</a>, a selenoenzyme, also catalyzes the disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide.

<h3>Fenton reaction</h3>
The reaction of <a href="/facts/Ferrous/AGImjWqq">Fe2+</a> and hydrogen peroxide is the basis of the <a href="/facts/Fenton_reaction/gTBzVprG">Fenton reaction</a>, which generates <a href="/facts/Hydroxyl_radical/XafpvqK5">hydroxyl radicals</a>, which are of significance in biology:

Fe(II) + H2O2 → Fe(III)OH + HO·
The Fenton reaction explains the toxicity of hydrogen peroxides because the hydroxyl radicals rapidly and irreversibly oxidize all organic compounds, including <a href="/facts/Protein/Jxmagu3E">proteins</a>, <a href="/facts/Membrane_lipid/vbPJoTu9">membrane lipids</a>, and <a href="/facts/DNA/nB89Iauz">DNA</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> Hydrogen peroxide is a significant source of <a href="/facts/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)/CjGTLKGl">oxidative DNA damage</a> in living cells. DNA damage includes formation of <a href="/facts/8-Oxo-2%27-deoxyguanosine/eC6AqGY4">8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine</a> among many other altered bases, as well as strand breaks, inter-strand crosslinks, and deoxyribose damage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> By interacting with Cl¯, hydrogen peroxide also leads to chlorinated DNA bases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> Hydroxyl radicals readily damage vital cellular components, especially those of the <a href="/facts/Mitochondria/ErHqrdJ1">mitochondria</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> The compound is a major factor implicated in the <a href="/facts/Free-radical_theory_of_aging/otFhFm8P">free-radical theory of aging</a>, based on its ready conversion into a <a href="/facts/Hydroxyl_radical/XafpvqK5">hydroxyl radical</a>.

<h3>Function</h3>
Eggs of <a href="/facts/Sea_urchin/RQrB6XTH">sea urchin</a>, shortly after fertilization by a sperm, produce hydrogen peroxide. It is then converted to <a href="/facts/Hydroxyl_radical/XafpvqK5">hydroxyl radicals</a> (HO•), which initiate <a href="/facts/Radical_polymerization/CbG5UqAd">radical polymerization</a>, which surrounds the eggs with a protective layer of <a href="/facts/Polymer/eF32E50K">polymer</a>.
The <a href="/facts/Bombardier_beetle/pI7K6nLa">bombardier beetle</a> combines <a href="/facts/Hydroquinone/QQ5EfwCF">hydroquinone</a> and hydrogen peroxide, leading to a violent <a href="/facts/Exothermic/gCuSvpa4">exothermic</a> <a href="/facts/Chemical_reaction/GpqWlKrz">chemical reaction</a> to produce boiling, foul-smelling liquid that partially becomes a <a href="/facts/Gas/hVVAoodV">gas</a> (<a href="/facts/Flash_evaporation/e7IxEL7y">flash evaporation</a>) and is expelled through an outlet valve with a loud popping sound.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a>
As a proposed <a href="/facts/Signaling_molecule/6oYAVP9I">signaling molecule</a>, hydrogen peroxide may regulate a wide variety of biological processes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> At least one study has tried to link hydrogen peroxide production to cancer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>

<h2 id="uses">Uses</h2>
<h3>Bleaching</h3>
About 60% of the world's production of hydrogen peroxide is used for <a href="/facts/Bleaching_of_wood_pulp/lWRshQJ4">pulp- and paper-bleaching</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> The second major industrial application is the manufacture of <a href="/facts/Sodium_percarbonate/tdPKeNvI">sodium percarbonate</a> and <a href="/facts/Sodium_perborate/rNw3Hnst">sodium perborate</a>, which are used as mild bleaches in <a href="/facts/Laundry/3v9PoI1u">laundry</a> <a href="/facts/Detergent/4FLKXR6p">detergents</a>. A representative conversion is:

Na2B4O7 + 4 H2O2 + 2 NaOH → 2 Na2B2O4(OH)4 + H2O
Sodium percarbonate, which is an adduct of <a href="/facts/Sodium_carbonate/P6RHvIoK">sodium carbonate</a> and hydrogen peroxide, is the active ingredient in such laundry products as <a href="/facts/OxiClean/8J4Awt09">OxiClean</a> and <a href="/facts/Tide_(detergent)/Nu4gb4yK">Tide laundry detergent</a>. When dissolved in water, it releases hydrogen peroxide and sodium carbonate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> By themselves these bleaching agents are only effective at wash temperatures of 60 °C (140 °F) or above and so, often are used in conjunction with <a href="/facts/Bleach_activator/Vqh51LGo">bleach activators</a>, which facilitate cleaning at lower temperatures.
Hydrogen peroxide has also been used as a <a href="/facts/Flour_bleaching_agent/3tLwNmHb">flour bleaching agent</a> and a <a href="/facts/Tooth_whitening/82tgxhvD">tooth and bone whitening</a> agent.

<h3>Production of organic peroxy compounds</h3>
It is used in the production of various <a href="/facts/Organic_peroxide/UAyyVaDU">organic peroxides</a> with <a href="/facts/Dibenzoyl_peroxide/8EowDfnH">dibenzoyl peroxide</a> being a high volume example.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> <a href="/facts/Peroxy_acid/jf2jPYCl">Peroxy acids</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Peracetic_acid/bdL4PGo5">peracetic acid</a> and <a href="/facts/Meta-Chloroperoxybenzoic_acid/xflsEmAN">meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid</a> also are produced using hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide has been used for creating <a href="/facts/Organic_peroxide/UAyyVaDU">organic peroxide</a>-based explosives, such as <a href="/facts/Acetone_peroxide/XFgfvWI5">acetone peroxide</a>. It is used as an initiator in <a href="/facts/Radical_polymerization/CbG5UqAd">polymerizations</a>. Hydrogen peroxide reacts with certain di-<a href="/facts/Ester/FoUAIIw4">esters</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Phenyl_oxalate_ester/axwj7yu9">phenyl oxalate ester</a> (cyalume), to produce <a href="/facts/Chemiluminescence/9LLwID4d">chemiluminescence</a>; this application is most commonly encountered in the form of <a href="/facts/Glow_stick/I0Tapjp9">glow sticks</a>.

<h3>Production of inorganic peroxides</h3>
The reaction with <a href="/facts/Borax/IQrXRJ3N">borax</a> leads to <a href="/facts/Sodium_perborate/rNw3Hnst">sodium perborate</a>, a bleach used in laundry detergents:

Na2B4O7 + 4 H2O2 + 2 NaOH → 2 Na2B2O4(OH)4 + H2O
<h3>Sewage treatment</h3>
Hydrogen peroxide is used in certain waste-water treatment processes to remove organic impurities. In <a href="/facts/Advanced_oxidation_process/FNf3LUcY">advanced oxidation processing</a>, the <a href="/facts/Fenton_reaction/gTBzVprG">Fenton reaction</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> gives the highly reactive <a href="/facts/Hydroxyl_radical/XafpvqK5">hydroxyl radical</a> (•OH). This degrades organic compounds, including those that are ordinarily robust, such as <a href="/facts/Aromatic_hydrocarbon/3EXq8Tgf">aromatic</a> or <a href="/facts/Halogenated_compound/FTmWVdPT">halogenated compounds</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> It can also oxidize <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a>-based compounds present in the waste; which is beneficial as it generally reduces their odour.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a>

<h3>Disinfectant</h3>
Hydrogen peroxide may be used for the sterilization of various surfaces,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> including surgical instruments,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> and may be deployed as a vapour (<a href="/facts/Vaporized_hydrogen_peroxide/pdWqtELG">VHP</a>) for room sterilization.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> H2O2 demonstrates broad-spectrum efficacy against viruses, bacteria, yeasts, and bacterial spores.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> In general, greater activity is seen against <a href="/facts/Gram-positive/H6WYQ17e">Gram-positive</a> than <a href="/facts/Gram-negative/S1PbVtp4">Gram-negative</a> bacteria; however, the presence of <a href="/facts/Catalase/CcJ9r5KG">catalase</a> or other <a href="/facts/Peroxidase/pEgHpmCV">peroxidases</a> in these organisms may increase tolerance in the presence of lower concentrations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> Lower levels of concentration (3%) will work against most spores; higher concentrations (7 to 30%) and longer contact times will improve sporicidal activity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a>
Hydrogen peroxide is seen as an environmentally safe alternative to <a href="/facts/Chlorine/y27UwYBM">chlorine</a>-based bleaches, as it degrades to form oxygen and water and it is <a href="/facts/Generally_recognized_as_safe/RkJynJyk">generally recognized as safe</a> as an <a href="/facts/Antimicrobial_agent/80ECEmvP">antimicrobial agent</a> by the U.S. <a href="/facts/Food_and_Drug_Administration/rCEnh9WB">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a>

<h3>Propellant</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/High-test_peroxide/3b5EjECA">High-test peroxide</a>

High-concentration H2O2 is referred to as "high-test peroxide" (HTP). It can be used as either a <a href="/facts/Monopropellant/nf8KGzDj">monopropellant</a> (not mixed with fuel) or the oxidizer component of a <a href="/facts/Bipropellant_rocket/TAonrVDn">bipropellant rocket</a>. Use as a monopropellant takes advantage of the decomposition of 70–98% concentration hydrogen peroxide into steam and oxygen. The propellant is pumped into a reaction chamber, where a catalyst, usually a silver or platinum screen, triggers decomposition, producing steam at over 600 °C (1,100 °F), which is expelled through a <a href="/facts/Nozzle/9z8wqmEC">nozzle</a>, generating <a href="/facts/Thrust/EM04CqV7">thrust</a>. H2O2 monopropellant produces a maximal <a href="/facts/Specific_impulse/JKGgw2I4">specific impulse</a> (Isp) of 161 s (1.6 <a href="/facts/Newton-second/8RDrLRf5">kN·s</a>/kg). Peroxide was the first major monopropellant adopted for use in rocket applications. <a href="/facts/Hydrazine/G7P5ITzU">Hydrazine</a> eventually replaced hydrogen peroxide monopropellant thruster applications primarily because of a 25% increase in the vacuum specific impulse.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> Hydrazine (toxic) and hydrogen peroxide (less toxic [ACGIH TLV 0.01 and 1 ppm respectively]) are the only two monopropellants (other than cold gases) to have been widely adopted and utilized for propulsion and power applications. The <a href="/facts/Bell_Rocket_Belt/jl8WSGo0">Bell Rocket Belt</a>, <a href="/facts/Reaction_control_system/YfqBrd7h">reaction control systems</a> for <a href="/facts/Bell_X-1/aF8D50BT">X-1</a>, <a href="/facts/X-15/btDgcYKz">X-15</a>, <a href="/facts/Centaur_(rocket_stage)/ryg96uIF">Centaur</a>, <a href="/facts/Project_Mercury/H8zqFzbC">Mercury</a>, <a href="/facts/Little_Joe_(rocket)/366kBM8A">Little Joe</a>, as well as the turbo-pump gas generators for X-1, X-15, Jupiter, Redstone and Viking used hydrogen peroxide as a monopropellant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> The <a href="/facts/RD-107/fmCvNDWw">RD-107</a> engines (used from 1957 to present) in the <a href="/facts/R-7_(rocket_family)/G4HrfbkB">R-7</a> series of rockets decompose hydrogen peroxide to power the turbopumps.
In bipropellant applications, H2O2 is decomposed to oxidize a burning fuel. Specific impulses as high as 350 s (3.5 kN·s/kg) can be achieved, depending on the fuel. Peroxide used as an oxidizer gives a somewhat lower Isp than liquid oxygen but is dense, storable, and non-cryogenic and can be more easily used to drive gas turbines to give high pressures using an efficient closed cycle. It may also be used for regenerative cooling of rocket engines. Peroxide was used very successfully as an oxidizer in World War II German rocket motors (e.g., <a href="/facts/T-Stoff/CbVuArL1">T-Stoff</a>, containing oxyquinoline stabilizer, for both the <a href="/facts/Walter_HWK_109-500/lxRwv9MI">Walter HWK 109-500</a> Starthilfe <a href="/facts/RATO/vGdDJa9L">RATO</a> externally podded monopropellant booster system and the <a href="/facts/Walter_HWK_109-509/2x4PSdqc">Walter HWK 109-509</a> rocket motor series used for the <a href="/facts/Me_163/S7cFXmjV">Me 163</a>B), most often used with <a href="/facts/C-Stoff/eM4cQruo">C-Stoff</a> in a self-igniting <a href="/facts/Hypergolic/p0Goa3rn">hypergolic</a> combination, and for the low-cost British <a href="/facts/Black_Knight_(rocket)/86RMxr4W">Black Knight</a> and <a href="/facts/Black_Arrow/SCcGv4qY">Black Arrow</a> launchers. Presently, HTP is used on ILR-33 AMBER<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> and Nucleus<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> suborbital rockets.
In the 1940s and 1950s, the <a href="/facts/Hellmuth_Walter_Kommanditgesellschaft/5bGfG1EE">Hellmuth Walter KG</a>–conceived <a href="/facts/Gas_turbine/JJJNwXrG">turbine</a> used hydrogen peroxide for use in <a href="/facts/Submarine/6fhcAKHV">submarines</a> while submerged; it was found to be too noisy and require too much maintenance compared to <a href="/facts/Submarine/6fhcAKHV">diesel-electric</a> power systems. Some <a href="/facts/Torpedo/RLLPpktk">torpedoes</a> used hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer or propellant. Operator error in the use of hydrogen peroxide torpedoes was named as possible causes for the sinking of <a href="/facts/HMS_Sidon_(P259)/HMjA5E0a">HMS Sidon</a> and the <a href="/facts/Russian_submarine_Kursk_(K-141)/Qs3Ya8TQ">Russian submarine Kursk</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> SAAB Underwater Systems is manufacturing the Torpedo 2000. This torpedo, used by the <a href="/facts/Swedish_Navy/S3GPS9VW">Swedish Navy</a>, is powered by a piston engine propelled by HTP as an oxidizer and <a href="/facts/Kerosene/DoHPYXKp">kerosene</a> as a fuel in a bipropellant system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a>

<h3>Household use</h3>

Hydrogen peroxide has various domestic uses, primarily as a cleaning and disinfecting agent.

Hair bleaching
Diluted H2O2 (between 1.9% and 12%) mixed with <a href="/facts/Aqueous_ammonia/pRg1m03X">aqueous ammonia</a> has been used to bleach human <a href="/facts/Hair/L7vt9FL3">hair</a>. The chemical's bleaching property lends its name to the phrase "<a href="/facts/Peroxide_blonde/SJRQ5eyT">peroxide blonde</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a>
Hydrogen peroxide is also used for <a href="/facts/Tooth_whitening/82tgxhvD">tooth whitening</a>. It may be found in most whitening toothpastes. Hydrogen peroxide has shown positive results involving teeth lightness and chroma shade parameters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> It works by oxidizing colored pigments onto the <a href="/facts/Tooth_enamel/ffUMmssl">enamel</a> where the shade of the tooth may become lighter. Hydrogen peroxide may be mixed with baking soda and salt to make a homemade toothpaste.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a>

Removal of blood stains
Hydrogen peroxide reacts with blood as a bleaching agent, and so if a blood stain is fresh, or not too old, liberal application of hydrogen peroxide, if necessary in more than single application, will bleach the stain fully out. After about two minutes of the application, the blood should be firmly blotted out.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a>

Acne treatment
Hydrogen peroxide may be used to treat <a href="/facts/Acne_vulgaris/TKJxhHSd">acne</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> although <a href="/facts/Benzoyl_peroxide/8EowDfnH">benzoyl peroxide</a> is a more common treatment.

Oral cleaning agent
The use of dilute hydrogen peroxide as an oral cleansing agent has been reviewed academically to determine its usefulness in treating <a href="/facts/Gingivitis/YwqwTGEv">gingivitis</a> and <a href="/facts/Dental_plaque/b67GE1pA">plaque</a>. Although there is a positive effect when compared with a placebo, it was concluded that <a href="/facts/Chlorhexidine/Gyv5LNxf">chlorhexidine</a> is a much more effective treatment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a>

<h3>Niche uses</h3>

Horticulture
Some <a href="/facts/Horticulture/m8qBLuT3">horticulturists</a> and users of <a href="/facts/Hydroponics/g96g3ypl">hydroponics</a> advocate the use of weak hydrogen peroxide solution in watering solutions. Its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen that enhances a plant's root development and helps to treat <a href="/facts/Root_rot/7Wm0YWoW">root rot</a> (cellular root death due to lack of oxygen) and a variety of other pests.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a>
For general watering concentrations, around 0.1% is in use. This can be increased up to one percent for antifungal actions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> Tests show that plant foliage can safely tolerate concentrations up to 3%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a>

Fishkeeping
Hydrogen peroxide is used in <a href="/facts/Aquaculture/MYdIMfbt">aquaculture</a> for controlling <a href="/facts/Fish_mortality/BfgSWA0Q">mortality</a> caused by various microbes. In 2019, the U.S. FDA approved it for control of Saprolegniasis in all coldwater finfish and all fingerling and adult coolwater and warmwater finfish, for control of external <a href="/facts/Columnaris/0ffUhN5S">columnaris</a> disease in warm-water finfish, and for control of <a href="/facts/Gyrodactylus/JE5zbFmI">Gyrodactylus</a> spp. in freshwater-reared salmonids.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a> Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide may be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish. The hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to catalysts such as <a href="/facts/Manganese_dioxide/HRwgXlUe">manganese dioxide</a>.

Removing yellowing from aged plastics
Hydrogen peroxide may be used in combination with a UV-light source to remove yellowing from white or light grey <a href="/facts/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene/WrksnpMv">acrylonitrile butadiene styrene</a> (ABS) plastics to partially or fully restore the original color. In the <a href="/facts/Retrocomputing/fHu2QnUo">retrocomputing</a> scene, this process is commonly referred to as <a href="/facts/Retrobright/0JNYYxqF">retrobright</a>.

<h2 id="safety">Safety</h2>

Regulations vary, but low concentrations, such as 5%, are widely available and legal to buy for medical use. Most over-the-counter peroxide solutions are not suitable for ingestion. Higher concentrations may be considered hazardous and typically are accompanied by a <a href="/facts/Safety_data_sheet/jbshEV2W">safety data sheet</a> (SDS). In high concentrations, hydrogen peroxide is an aggressive oxidizer and will corrode many materials, including human skin. In the presence of a <a href="/facts/Reducing_agent/CtfSGVXC">reducing agent</a>, high concentrations of H2O2 will react violently.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a>
While concentrations up to 35% produce only "white" oxygen bubbles in the skin (and some biting pain) that disappear with the blood within 30–45 minutes, concentrations of 98% dissolve paper. However, concentrations as low as 3% can be dangerous for the eye because of <a href="/facts/Oxygen_evolution/vPCs8y9G">oxygen evolution</a> within the eye.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a>
High-concentration hydrogen peroxide streams, typically above 40%, should be considered hazardous due to concentrated hydrogen peroxide's meeting the definition of a <a href="/facts/United_States_Department_of_Transportation/qgNCJ1tF">DOT</a> oxidizer according to U.S. regulations if released into the environment. The <a href="/facts/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency/ghI985SI">EPA</a> Reportable Quantity (RQ) for D001 hazardous wastes is 100 pounds (45 kg), or approximately 10 US gallons (38 L), of concentrated hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area and away from any flammable or combustible substances. It should be stored in a container composed of non-reactive materials such as stainless steel or glass (other materials including some plastics and aluminium alloys may also be suitable).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a> As it breaks down quickly when exposed to light, it should be stored in an opaque container, and pharmaceutical formulations typically come in brown bottles that block light.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a>
Hydrogen peroxide, either in pure or diluted form, may pose several risks, the main one being that it forms explosive mixtures upon contact with organic compounds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> <a href="/facts/Distillation/plDvUMxn">Distillation</a> of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is highly dangerous. It is corrosive, especially when concentrated, but even domestic-strength solutions may cause irritation to the eyes, <a href="/facts/Mucous_membrane/oIw0vyel">mucous membranes</a>, and skin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous, as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of gas (ten times the volume of a 3% solution), leading to internal bloating. Inhaling over 10% can cause severe pulmonary irritation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a>
With a significant vapour pressure (1.2 kPa at 50 °C),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> hydrogen peroxide vapour is potentially hazardous. According to U.S. NIOSH, the <a href="/facts/Immediately_dangerous_to_life_and_health/ektUbSdQ">immediately dangerous to life and health</a> (IDLH) limit is only 75 ppm.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> The U.S. <a href="/facts/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration/dCGbW5Ax">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a> (OSHA) has established a permissible exposure limit of 1.0 ppm calculated as an 8-hour time-weighted average (29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> Hydrogen peroxide has been classified by the <a href="/facts/American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists/xtRc73eQ">American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists</a> (ACGIH) as a "known animal carcinogen, with unknown relevance on humans".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> For workplaces where there is a risk of exposure to the hazardous concentrations of the vapours, continuous monitors for hydrogen peroxide should be used. Information on the hazards of hydrogen peroxide is available from OSHA<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> and from the ATSDR.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a>

<h3>Wound healing</h3>
Historically, hydrogen peroxide was used for disinfecting wounds, partly because of its low cost and prompt availability compared to other <a href="/facts/Antiseptic/ua05WK9M">antiseptics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a>
There is conflicting evidence on hydrogen peroxide's effect on wound healing. Some research finds benefit, while other research find delays and healing inhibition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a> Its use for home treatment of wounds is generally not recommended.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a>
1.5–3% hydrogen peroxide is used as a disinfectant in dentistry, especially in endodotic treatments together with hypochlorite and chlorhexidine and 1–1.5% is also useful for treatment of inflammation of third molars (wisdom teeth).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a>

<h3>Use in alternative medicine</h3>
Practitioners of <a href="/facts/Alternative_medicine/XwFG5qtK">alternative medicine</a> have advocated the use of hydrogen peroxide for various conditions, including <a href="/facts/Emphysema/ud3oXGCr">emphysema</a>, <a href="/facts/Influenza/nWuFzh6L">influenza</a>, <a href="/facts/AIDS/RqLIEMuJ">AIDS</a>, and in particular <a href="/facts/Cancer/PVW6n1D0">cancer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a> There is no evidence of effectiveness and in some cases it has proved fatal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a>
Both the effectiveness and safety of hydrogen peroxide therapy is scientifically questionable. Hydrogen peroxide is produced by the immune system, but in a carefully controlled manner. Cells called <a href="/facts/Phagocyte/1vbsR9er">phagocytes</a> engulf pathogens and then use hydrogen peroxide to destroy them. The peroxide is toxic to both the cell and the pathogen and so is kept within a special compartment, called a <a href="/facts/Phagosome/tEHvpGy9">phagosome</a>. Free hydrogen peroxide will damage any tissue it encounters via <a href="/facts/Oxidative_stress/HX7dfUUb">oxidative stress</a>, a process that also has been proposed as a cause of cancer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a>
Claims that hydrogen peroxide therapy increases cellular levels of oxygen have not been supported. The quantities administered would be expected to provide very little additional oxygen compared to that available from normal respiration. It is also difficult to raise the level of oxygen around cancer cells within a tumour, as the blood supply tends to be poor, a situation known as <a href="/facts/Tumor_hypoxia/fLNW3AuQ">tumor hypoxia</a>.
Large oral doses of hydrogen peroxide at a 3% concentration may cause irritation and blistering to the mouth, throat, and abdomen as well as abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> Ingestion of hydrogen peroxide at concentrations of 35% or higher has been implicated as the cause of numerous <a href="/facts/Air_embolism/DC00yS4z">gas embolism</a> events resulting in hospitalisation. In these cases, <a href="/facts/Hyperbaric_medicine/AjJVW8Qs">hyperbaric oxygen therapy</a> was used to treat the embolisms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a>
<a href="/facts/Intravenous_therapy/AwwuD3Nu">Intravenous injection</a> of hydrogen peroxide has been linked to several deaths.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a>
The <a href="/facts/American_Cancer_Society/LvXxqke6">American Cancer Society</a> states that "there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe, effective, or useful cancer treatment."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> Furthermore, the therapy is not approved by the U.S. FDA.

<h3>Historical incidents</h3>
<ul><li>On 16 July 1934, in <a href="/facts/Kummersdorf/enaq2bfF">Kummersdorf</a>, Germany, a propellant tank containing an experimental monopropellant mixture consisting of hydrogen peroxide and <a href="/facts/Ethanol/3lCLfBSP">ethanol</a> exploded during a test, killing three people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a></li>
<li>During the <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">Second World War</a>, doctors in <a href="/facts/Nazi_concentration_camps/2st2dDQm">German concentration camps</a> experimented with the use of hydrogen peroxide injections in the killing of human subjects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a></li>
<li>In December 1943, the pilot <a href="/facts/Josef_P%C3%B6hs/9qTgXMSd">Josef Pöhs</a> died after being exposed to the <a href="/facts/T-Stoff/CbVuArL1">T-Stoff</a> of his <a href="/facts/Messerschmitt_Me_163/S7cFXmjV">Messerschmitt Me 163</a>.</li>
<li>In June 1955, Royal Navy submarine <a href="/facts/HMS_Sidon_(P259)/HMjA5E0a">HMS Sidon</a> sank after leaking high-test peroxide in a torpedo caused it to explode in its tube, killing twelve crew members; a member of the rescue party also succumbed.</li>
<li>In April 1992, an explosion occurred at the hydrogen peroxide plant at <a href="/facts/Jarrie/uLwVnfKr">Jarrie</a> in France, due to technical failure of the computerised control system and resulting in one fatality and wide destruction of the plant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a></li>
<li>Several people received minor injuries after a hydrogen peroxide spill on board a <a href="/facts/Northwest_Airlines/mQcKvgE6">Northwest Airlines</a> flight from <a href="/facts/Orlando,_Florida/QeW5fkCp">Orlando, Florida</a> to <a href="/facts/Memphis,_Tennessee/DwtMHq1I">Memphis, Tennessee</a> on 28 October 1998.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a></li>
<li>The Russian submarine <a href="/facts/Russian_submarine_Kursk_(K-141)/Qs3Ya8TQ">K-141 Kursk</a> sailed to perform an exercise of firing dummy torpedoes at the <a href="/facts/Russian_battlecruiser_Pyotr_Velikiy/xR9gtkJs">Pyotr Velikiy</a>, a <a href="/facts/Kirov-class_battlecruiser/0jIK9JLu">Kirov-class battlecruiser</a>. On 12 August 2000, at 11:28 local time (07:28 UTC), <a href="/facts/Kursk_submarine_disaster/24wfclHT">there was an explosion</a> while preparing to fire the torpedoes. The only credible report to date is that this was due to the failure and explosion of one of the Kursk's hydrogen peroxide-fueled torpedoes. It is believed that <a href="/facts/High_test_peroxide/3b5EjECA">HTP</a>, a form of highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide used as propellant for the torpedo, seeped through its container, damaged either by rust or in the loading procedure on land where an incident involving one of the torpedoes accidentally touching ground went unreported. The vessel was lost with all hands.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a></li>
<li>On 15 August 2010, a spill of about 30 US gallons (110 L) of cleaning fluid occurred on the 54th floor of 1515 Broadway, in <a href="/facts/Times_Square/MB9V2j7y">Times Square</a>, <a href="/facts/New_York_City/YlyvFmVC">New York City</a>. The spill, which a spokesperson for the <a href="/facts/New_York_City_Fire_Department/cyAjE4NA">New York City Fire Department</a> said was of hydrogen peroxide, shut down Broadway between West 42nd and West 48th streets as fire engines responded to the <a href="/facts/HAZMAT/mfe6Yv43">hazmat</a> situation. There were no reported injuries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/FOX_reagent/ghk5KAwL">FOX reagent</a>, used to measure levels of hydrogen peroxide in biological systems</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hydrogen_chalcogenide/pNCrhmwX">Hydrogen chalcogenide</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Retrobright/0JNYYxqF">Retrobright</a>, a process using hydrogen peroxide to restore yellowed <a href="/facts/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene/WrksnpMv">acrylonitrile butadiene styrene</a> plastic</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bis(trimethylsilyl)_peroxide/3yG01TQ4">Bis(trimethylsilyl) peroxide</a>, an aprotic substitute</li></ul>

Bibliography

<ul><li>Drabowicz, J.; Kiełbasinski, P.; Mikołajczyk, M. (1994). "3. Synthesis of Sulphoxides". The Syntheses of Sulphones, Sulphoxides and Cyclic Sulphides. Wiley. pp. 109–254, See pp. 112–6. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470666357.ch3">10.1002/9780470666357.ch3</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-471-93970-2. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/521033898">521033898</a>.</li>
<li>Greenwood NN, Earnshaw A (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-59124-291-6. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49708420">49708420</a>. A great description of properties & chemistry of H2O2.</li>
<li>March J (1992). Advanced Organic Chemistry (4th ed.). New York: Wiley. p. 723. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-585-36749-3. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47010289">47010289</a>.</li>
<li>Hess WT (1995). "Hydrogen Peroxide". Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Vol. 13 (4th ed.). Wiley. pp. 961–995. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-471-52686-X. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34412578">34412578</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hydrogen peroxide.

Wikiversity has learning resources about Observing the Effects of Concentration on Enzyme Activity

<ul><li><a href="https://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_hydrogen_peroxide_accident.htm">Hydrogen Peroxide</a> at <a href="/facts/The_Periodic_Table_of_Videos/vC5kbN0M">The Periodic Table of Videos</a> (University of Nottingham)</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051214014658/https://msds.fmc.com/msds/100000010225-MSDS_US-E.pdf">Material Safety Data Sheet</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304110351/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfactsx4.html">ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry FAQ</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0164.htm">International Chemical Safety Card 0164</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0335.html">NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150502171743/https://www.inclusive-science-engineering.com/hydrogen-peroxide-manufacturing-methods/hydrogenperoxide-by-riedl-pfleiderer/">Process flow sheet of Hydrogen Peroxide Production by anthrahydroquinone autoxidation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.hydrogen-peroxide.us/chemical-properties/Rocketdyne-Hydrogen_peroxide_handbook-1967.pdf">Hydrogen Peroxide Handbook by Rocketdyne</a></li>
<li><a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jp962946u">IR spectroscopic study J. Phys. Chem.</a></li>
<li><a href="https://youtube.com/shorts/cF-MUrqVX0A">Bleaching action of Hydrogen peroxide</a> at YouTube</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

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<li id="fn:19">Giguère PA. "Hydrogen peroxide". Access Science. McGraw-Hill Education. doi:10.1036/1097-8542.329200. Archived from the original on 30 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2018. Hydrogen peroxide was discovered in 1818 by the French chemist Louis-Jacques Thenard, who named it eau oxygénée (oxygenated water). <a href="/wiki/Paul-Antoine_Gigu%C3%A8re" target="_blank">/wiki/Paul-Antoine_Gigu%C3%A8re</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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Carrara's findings were confirmed by: W. R. Orndorff and John White (1893) "The molecular weight of hydrogen peroxide and of benzoyl peroxide," Archived 4 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine American Chemical Journal, 15 : 347–356. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160904175937/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yk46AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA19" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160904175937/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yk46AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA19</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">See, for example:
In 1882, Kingzett proposed as a structure H2O=O. See: Kingzett T (29 September 1882). "On the activity of oxygen and the mode of formation of hydrogen dioxide". The Chemical News. 46 (1192): 141–2. Archived from the original on 3 September 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
In his 1922 textbook, Joseph Mellor considered three hypothetical molecular structures for hydrogen peroxide, admitting (p. 952): "... the constitution of this compound has not been yet established by unequivocal experiments". See: Joseph William Mellor, A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, vol. 1 (London, England: Longmans, Green and Co., 1922), p. 952–956. Archived 3 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine
W. C. Schumb, C. N. Satterfield, and R. L. Wentworth (1 December 1953) "Report no. 43: Hydrogen peroxide, Part two" Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Office of Naval Research, Contract No. N5ori-07819 On p. 178, the authors present six hypothetical models (including cis-trans isomers) for hydrogen peroxide's molecular structure. On p. 184, the present structure is considered almost certainly correct—although a small doubt remained. (Note: The report by Schumb et al. was reprinted as: W. C. Schumb, C. N. Satterfield, and R. L. Wentworth, Hydrogen Peroxide (New York, New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp. (American Chemical Society Monograph), 1955).)
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<li id="fn:99">see Hans Marquardt, Lehrbuch der Toxikologie <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

Hydrogen peroxide open-in-new

Hydrogen peroxide