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High-strength low-alloy steel
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<h2 id="classifications">Classifications</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Weathering_steel/gJVw2JXR">Weathering steels</a>: Steels which have better corrosion resistance. A common example is COR-TEN.</li> <li>Control-rolled steels: Hot rolled steels which have a highly deformed austenite structure that will transform to a very fine equiaxed ferrite structure upon cooling.</li> <li>Pearlite-reduced steels: Low carbon content steels which lead to little or no pearlite, but rather a very fine grain ferrite matrix. It is strengthened by precipitation hardening.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Acicular_ferrite/8PdlkPGh">Acicular ferrite</a> steels: These steels are characterized by a very fine high strength acicular ferrite structure, a very low carbon content, and good <a href="/facts/Hardenability/rRsBpSgq">hardenability</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Dual-phase_steel/IV8I9aTS">Dual-phase steels</a>: These steels have a ferrite microstructure that contain small, uniformly distributed sections of martensite. This microstructure gives the steels a low yield strength, high rate of work hardening, and good formability.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Microalloyed_steel/crn2zUd7">Microalloyed steels</a>: Steels which contain very small additions of niobium, vanadium, and/or titanium to obtain a refined grain size and/or precipitation hardening.</li></ul> <p>A common type of micro-alloyed steel is improved-formability HSLA. It has a yield strength up to 80,000 psi (550 MPa) but costs only 24% more than <a href="/facts/A36_steel/Xg1c4beQ">A36 steel</a> (36,000 psi (250 MPa)). One of the disadvantages of this steel is that it is 30 to 40% less <a href="/facts/Ductile/SBJsahEk">ductile</a>. In the U.S., these steels are dictated by the <a href="/facts/ASTM/xzdCexYJ">ASTM</a> standards A1008/A1008M and A1011/A1011M for sheet metal and A656/A656M for plates. These steels were developed for the automotive industry to reduce weight without losing strength. Examples of uses include door-intrusion beams, chassis members, reinforcing and mounting brackets, steering and suspension parts, bumpers, and wheels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="sae-grades">SAE grades</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/Society_of_Automotive_Engineers/cBS1MznQ">Society of Automotive Engineers</a> (SAE) maintains standards for HSLA steel grades because they are often used in automotive applications. </p> SAE HSLA steel grade compositions<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th>Grade</th><th>% Carbon (max)</th><th>% Manganese (max)</th><th>% Phosphorus (max)</th><th>% Sulfur (max)</th><th>% Silicon (max)</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td>942X</td><td>0.21</td><td>1.35</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td>Niobium or vanadium treated</td></tr><tr><td>945A</td><td>0.15</td><td>1.00</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>945C</td><td>0.23</td><td>1.40</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>945X</td><td>0.22</td><td>1.35</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td>Niobium or vanadium treated</td></tr><tr><td>950A</td><td>0.15</td><td>1.30</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>950B</td><td>0.22</td><td>1.30</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>950C</td><td>0.25</td><td>1.60</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>950D</td><td>0.15</td><td>1.00</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>950X</td><td>0.23</td><td>1.35</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td>Niobium or vanadium treated</td></tr><tr><td>955X</td><td>0.25</td><td>1.35</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td>Niobium, vanadium, or nitrogen treated</td></tr><tr><td>960X</td><td>0.26</td><td>1.45</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td>Niobium, vanadium, or nitrogen treated</td></tr><tr><td>965X</td><td>0.26</td><td>1.45</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td>Niobium, vanadium, or nitrogen treated</td></tr><tr><td>970X</td><td>0.26</td><td>1.65</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td>Niobium, vanadium, or nitrogen treated</td></tr><tr><td>980X</td><td>0.26</td><td>1.65</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.90</td><td>Niobium, vanadium, or nitrogen treated</td></tr></tbody></table> SAE HSLA steel grade mechanical properties<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th>Grade</th><th>Form</th><th>Yield strength (min) [psi (MPa)]</th><th>Ultimate tensile strength (min) [psi (MPa)]</th></tr><tr><td>942X</td><td>Plates, shapes & bars up to 4 in.</td><td>42,000 (290)</td><td>60,000 (414)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">945A, C</td><td>Sheet & strip</td><td>45,000 (310)</td><td>60,000 (414)</td></tr><tr><td>Plates, shapes & bars:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>0–0.5 in.</td><td>45,000 (310)</td><td>65,000 (448)</td></tr><tr><td>0.5–1.5 in.</td><td>42,000 (290)</td><td>62,000 (427)</td></tr><tr><td>1.5–3 in.</td><td>40,000 (276)</td><td>62,000 (427)</td></tr><tr><td>945X</td><td>Sheet, strip, plates, shapes & bars up to 1.5 in.</td><td>45,000 (310)</td><td>60,000 (414)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">950A, B, C, D</td><td>Sheet & strip</td><td>50,000 (345)</td><td>70,000 (483)</td></tr><tr><td>Plates, shapes & bars:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>0–0.5 in.</td><td>50,000 (345)</td><td>70,000 (483)</td></tr><tr><td>0.5–1.5 in.</td><td>45,000 (310)</td><td>67,000 (462)</td></tr><tr><td>1.5–3 in.</td><td>42,000 (290)</td><td>63,000 (434)</td></tr><tr><td>950X</td><td>Sheet, strip, plates, shapes & bars up to 1.5 in.</td><td>50,000 (345)</td><td>65,000 (448)</td></tr><tr><td>955X</td><td>Sheet, strip, plates, shapes & bars up to 1.5 in.</td><td>55,000 (379)</td><td>70,000 (483)</td></tr><tr><td>960X</td><td>Sheet, strip, plates, shapes & bars up to 1.5 in.</td><td>60,000 (414)</td><td>75,000 (517)</td></tr><tr><td>965X</td><td>Sheet, strip, plates, shapes & bars up to 0.75 in.</td><td>65,000 (448)</td><td>80,000 (552)</td></tr><tr><td>970X</td><td>Sheet, strip, plates, shapes & bars up to 0.75 in.</td><td>70,000 (483)</td><td>85,000 (586)</td></tr><tr><td>980X</td><td>Sheet, strip & plates up to 0.375 in.</td><td>80,000 (552)</td><td>95,000 (655)</td></tr></tbody></table> Ranking of various properties for SAE HSLA steel grades<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th>Rank</th><th>Weldability</th><th>Formability</th><th>Toughness</th></tr><tr><td>Worst</td><td>980X</td><td>980X</td><td>980X</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="9"></td><td>970X</td><td>970X</td><td>970X</td></tr><tr><td>965X</td><td>965X</td><td>965X</td></tr><tr><td>960X</td><td>960X</td><td>960X</td></tr><tr><td>955X, 950C, 942X</td><td>955X</td><td>955X</td></tr><tr><td>945C</td><td>950C</td><td>945C, 950C, 942X</td></tr><tr><td>950B, 950X</td><td>950D</td><td>945X, 950X</td></tr><tr><td>945X</td><td>950B, 950X, 942X</td><td>950D</td></tr><tr><td>950D</td><td>945C, 945X</td><td>950B</td></tr><tr><td>950A</td><td>950A</td><td>950A</td></tr><tr><td>Best</td><td>945A</td><td>945A</td><td>945A</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="controlled-rolling-of-hsla-steels">Controlled rolling of HSLA steels</h2> <h3>Mechanism</h3> <p>Controlled rolling </p> <p>Controlled rolling is a method of refining the grain of steel by introducing a large amount of nucleation sites for ferrite in the austenite matrix by rolling it at precisely controlled temperature, thereby increasing the strength of the steel. There are three main stages in controlled rolling:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>1) Deformation in <a href="/facts/Recrystallization_(metallurgy)/ESt060Ib">recrystallization</a> regions. In this stage, austenite is being recrystallized and refined, enabling refinement of ferrite grains in a later stage. </p><p>2) Deformation in non-recrystallization regions. Austenite grains are elongated by rolling. Deformation bands might present within the band as well. Elongated grain boundaries and deformation bands are all nucleation sites for ferrite. </p><p>3) Deformation in austenite-ferrite two phase region. Ferrite nucleates and austenite are further work-hardened. </p><p>Strengthening Mechanism </p><p>Control-rolled HSLA steels contain a combination of different strengthening mechanisms. The main strengthening effect comes from grain refinement (<a href="/facts/Grain_boundary_strengthening/Dao0UIh5">Grain boundary strengthening</a>), in which strength increases as the grain size decreases. The other mechanisms include <a href="/facts/Solid_solution_strengthening/lJAJ4HVe">solid solution strengthening</a> and <a href="/facts/Precipitation_hardening/hxe4lpBj">precipitate hardening</a> from micro-alloyed elements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> After the steel passes the temperature of austenite-ferrite region, it is then further strengthened by <a href="/facts/Work_hardening/Jh38U7rz">work hardening</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h3>Mechanical properties</h3> <p>Control-rolled HSLA steels usually have higher strength and toughness, as well as lower <a href="/facts/Ductile-brittle_transition_temperature/SBJsahEk">ductile-brittle transition temperature</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> and ductile fracture properties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> Below are some common micro-alloyed elements used to improve the mechanical properties. </p><p>Effect of micro-alloyed elements </p><p>Niobium: Nb can increase the recrystallization temperature by around 100 °C,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> thereby extending the non-recrystallization region and slowing down the grain growth. Nb can increase both the strength and toughness by precipitate strengthening and grain refinement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Moreover, Nb is a strong carbide/nitride former, the Nb(C, N) formed can hinder grain growth during austenite-to-ferrite transition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p><p>Vanadium: V can significantly increase the strength and transition temperature by precipitate strengthening.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p><p>Titanium: Ti produces a slight increase in strengthen via both grain refinement and precipitate strengthening. </p><p>Nb, V, and Ti are three common alloying elements in HSLA steels. They are all good carbide and nitride formers,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> where the precipitates formed can prevent grain growth by pinning grain boundaries. They are also all ferrite formers, which increase the transition temperature of austenite-ferrite two phase region and reduce the non-recrystallization region.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> The reduction in the non-recrystallization region induces the formation of deformation bands and activated grain boundaries, which are alternative ferrite nucleation sites other than grain boundaries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Other alloying elements are mainly for solid solution strengthening including silicon, manganese, chromium, copper, and nickel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="sources">Sources</h2> <ul><li>Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), <i>Materials and Processes in Manufacturing</i> (9th ed.), Wiley, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-471-65653-4.</li> <li>Oberg, E.; et al. (1996), <i>Machinery's Handbook</i> (25th ed.), Industrial Press Inc</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels". Retrieved 2008-10-06. <a href="http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=62" target="_blank">http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=62</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"HSLA Steel". 2002-11-15. Archived from the original on 2009-12-30. Retrieved 2008-10-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"HSLA Steel". 2002-11-15. Archived from the original on 2009-12-30. Retrieved 2008-10-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"HSLA Steel". 2002-11-15. Archived from the original on 2009-12-30. Retrieved 2008-10-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"HSLA Steel". 2002-11-15. Archived from the original on 2009-12-30. Retrieved 2008-10-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"HSLA Steel". 2002-11-15. Archived from the original on 2009-12-30. Retrieved 2008-10-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Degarmo, p. 116. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Same density as carbon steel, see next paragraph <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Kant, Krishan; Kumar, Lalit; Verma, Kanika; Rawat, Deepak (10 April 2016). "Effects of Various Process Parameters by Tensile and Toughness Test on Weld Joint Quality of HSLA Steel during Submerged Arc Welding". International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 2 (2): 652–659. doi:10.32628/IJSRSET1622216 (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) <a href="https://ijsrset.com/IJSRSET1622216" target="_blank">https://ijsrset.com/IJSRSET1622216</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"Stainless steel properties for structural automotive applications" (PDF). Euro Inox. June 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-08-14. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928115028/http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/auto/StructuralAutomotiveApp_EN.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070928115028/http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/auto/StructuralAutomotiveApp_EN.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>"Swebor Armor 500 ballistic protection steel" (PDF). Swebarmor. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-01-14. Retrieved 2018-05-21. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200114072011/http://media.sweborarmor.com/2014/11/141125_swebor_armor-500_eng.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20200114072011/http://media.sweborarmor.com/2014/11/141125_swebor_armor-500_eng.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels". Retrieved 2008-10-06. <a href="http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=62" target="_blank">http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=62</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>"HSLA Steel". 2002-11-15. Archived from the original on 2009-12-30. Retrieved 2008-10-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20091230082918/http://machinedesign.com/article/hsla-steel-1115</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Cold rolled sheet steel, archived from the original on 2008-04-30, retrieved 2008-10-11 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080430202755/http://www.ussteel.com/corp/sheet/cr/crs.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080430202755/http://www.ussteel.com/corp/sheet/cr/crs.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Oberg, pp. 440-441. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Oberg, p. 441. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Oberg, p. 442. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Tamura, Imao (1988). Thermomechanical Processing of High-strength Low-alloy Steels. Butterworths. ISBN 978-0-408-11034-1.[page needed] <a href="978-0-408-11034-1" target="_blank">978-0-408-11034-1</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Morrison, W. B.; Chapman, J. A. (8 July 1976). "Rosenhain Centenary Conference - 3. Materials development present and future 3.2 Controlled rolling". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 282 (1307): 289–303. doi:10.1098/rsta.1976.0119. S2CID 136154334. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Tanaka, T. (January 1981). "Controlled rolling of steel plate and strip". International Metals Reviews. 26 (1): 185–212. doi:10.1179/imtr.1981.26.1.185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Morrison, W. B.; Chapman, J. A. (8 July 1976). "Rosenhain Centenary Conference - 3. Materials development present and future 3.2 Controlled rolling". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 282 (1307): 289–303. doi:10.1098/rsta.1976.0119. S2CID 136154334. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Tamura, Imao (1988). Thermomechanical Processing of High-strength Low-alloy Steels. Butterworths. ISBN 978-0-408-11034-1.[page needed] <a href="978-0-408-11034-1" target="_blank">978-0-408-11034-1</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Tanaka, T. (January 1981). "Controlled rolling of steel plate and strip". International Metals Reviews. 26 (1): 185–212. doi:10.1179/imtr.1981.26.1.185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Morrison, W. B.; Chapman, J. A. (8 July 1976). "Rosenhain Centenary Conference - 3. Materials development present and future 3.2 Controlled rolling". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 282 (1307): 289–303. doi:10.1098/rsta.1976.0119. S2CID 136154334. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Tamura, Imao (1988). Thermomechanical Processing of High-strength Low-alloy Steels. Butterworths. ISBN 978-0-408-11034-1.[page needed] <a href="978-0-408-11034-1" target="_blank">978-0-408-11034-1</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Tanaka, T. (January 1981). "Controlled rolling of steel plate and strip". International Metals Reviews. 26 (1): 185–212. doi:10.1179/imtr.1981.26.1.185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Tanaka, T. (January 1981). "Controlled rolling of steel plate and strip". International Metals Reviews. 26 (1): 185–212. doi:10.1179/imtr.1981.26.1.185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Tanaka, T. (January 1981). "Controlled rolling of steel plate and strip". International Metals Reviews. 26 (1): 185–212. doi:10.1179/imtr.1981.26.1.185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Tamura, Imao (1988). Thermomechanical Processing of High-strength Low-alloy Steels. Butterworths. ISBN 978-0-408-11034-1.[page needed] <a href="978-0-408-11034-1" target="_blank">978-0-408-11034-1</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Tamura, Imao (1988). Thermomechanical Processing of High-strength Low-alloy Steels. Butterworths. ISBN 978-0-408-11034-1.[page needed] <a href="978-0-408-11034-1" target="_blank">978-0-408-11034-1</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Tamura, Imao (1988). Thermomechanical Processing of High-strength Low-alloy Steels. Butterworths. ISBN 978-0-408-11034-1.[page needed] <a href="978-0-408-11034-1" target="_blank">978-0-408-11034-1</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Tanaka, T. (January 1981). "Controlled rolling of steel plate and strip". International Metals Reviews. 26 (1): 185–212. doi:10.1179/imtr.1981.26.1.185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>