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Constantius II
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<h2 id="early-life">Early life</h2> <p>Flavius Julius Constantius<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> was born in 317 at <a href="/facts/Sirmium/X13KTPqF">Sirmium</a>, <a href="/facts/Pannonia/MMKTvSuW">Pannonia</a>, now <a href="/facts/Serbia/U0LVzPdI">Serbia</a>. He was the third son of <a href="/facts/Constantine_the_Great/jW1q8TPp">Constantine the Great</a>, and second by his second wife <a href="/facts/Fausta/JlWrlUr9">Fausta</a>, the daughter of <a href="/facts/Maximian/Bfhf6oCY">Maximian</a>. Constantius was made <i>caesar</i> by his father on 8 November 324.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> In 336, religious unrest in <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)/7L4XUMzG">Armenia</a> and tense relations between Constantine and king <a href="/facts/Shapur_II/QswbG5x1">Shapur II</a> caused war to break out between Rome and <a href="/facts/Sassanid_Persia/JvbRevkA">Sassanid Persia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> Though he made initial preparations for the war, Constantine fell ill and sent Constantius east to take command of the eastern frontier.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Before Constantius arrived, the Persian general Narses, who was possibly the king's brother, overran <a href="/facts/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)/GFdMGCpQ">Mesopotamia</a> and captured <a href="/facts/Diyarbakir/kHqcXpPe">Amida</a>. Constantius promptly attacked Narses, and after suffering minor setbacks defeated and killed Narses at the Battle of Narasara.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> Constantius captured Amida and initiated a major refortification of the city, enhancing the city's circuit walls and constructing large towers. He also built a new stronghold in the hinterland nearby, naming it <i>Antinopolis</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="augustus-in-the-east">Augustus in the east</h2> <p>In early 337, Constantius hurried to <a href="/facts/Constantinople/fLcY371n">Constantinople</a> after receiving news that his father was near death. After Constantine died, Constantius buried him with lavish ceremony in the <a href="/facts/Church_of_the_Holy_Apostles/aqVxEXr0">Church of the Holy Apostles</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Soon after his father's death, the army massacred his relatives descended from the marriage of his paternal grandfather <a href="/facts/Constantius_Chlorus/YX5SFTF2">Constantius Chlorus</a> to <a href="/facts/Flavia_Maximiana_Theodora/RelaGLzz">Flavia Maximiana Theodora</a>, though the details are unclear.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Two of Constantius's uncles (<a href="/facts/Julius_Constantius/Y30zz11Y">Julius Constantius</a> and <a href="/facts/Flavius_Dalmatius/DqYrjeFY">Flavius Dalmatius</a>) and seven of his cousins were killed,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> including <a href="/facts/Hannibalianus/ktdH3BwM">Hannibalianus</a> and <a href="/facts/Dalmatius/J0S943rD">Dalmatius</a>, rulers of <a href="/facts/Diocese_of_Pontus/RsXd8kB4">Pontus</a> and <a href="/facts/Diocese_of_Moesia/Pzp99GPA">Moesia</a> respectively, leaving Constantius, his two brothers <a href="/facts/Constantine_II_(emperor)/FwUu1CSS">Constantine II</a> and <a href="/facts/Constans/Q1GzfjqH">Constans</a>, and three cousins <a href="/facts/Constantius_Gallus/1kEK22bl">Gallus</a>, <a href="/facts/Julian_the_Apostate/4ecggf42">Julian</a> and <a href="/facts/Nepotianus/r0MnUQaR">Nepotianus</a> as the only surviving male relatives of Constantine the Great. While the “official version” was that Constantius's relatives were merely the victims of a mutinous army,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Ammianus_Marcellinus/Q9Mf1KeS">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <a href="/facts/Zosimus_(historian)/RAMJg0zv">Zosimus</a>, <a href="/facts/Libanius/MwcF0xxC">Libanius</a>, <a href="/facts/Athanasius_of_Alexandria/7YPY62FG">Athanasius</a> and Julian all blamed Constantius for the event.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Burgess considered the latter version to be “consistent with all the evidence”, pointing to multiple factors that he believed lined up with the massacre being a planned attack rather than a spontaneous mutiny - the lack of high-profile punishments as a response, the sparing of all women, the attempted <a href="/facts/Damnatio_memoriae/Y94fVfyk">damnatio memoriae</a> on the deceased, and the exile of the survivors Gallus and Julian.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>Soon after, Constantius met his brothers in <a href="/facts/Pannonia/MMKTvSuW">Pannonia</a> at <a href="/facts/Sirmium/X13KTPqF">Sirmium</a> to formalize the partition of the empire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Constantius received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, <a href="/facts/Roman_Thrace/2lWn8WJ3">Thrace</a>, <a href="/facts/Asia_Minor/vMkrLrPr">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/facts/Roman_Syria/F5Gqlhcu">Syria</a>, <a href="/facts/Roman_Egypt/P1wkcTmv">Egypt</a>, and <a href="/facts/Cyrenaica/w624AyBA">Cyrenaica</a>; Constantine received <a href="/facts/Roman_Britain/1Ez37u7L">Britannia</a>, <a href="/facts/Roman_Gaul/lwD5gbaV">Gaul</a>, <a href="/facts/Hispania/EYd2cv27">Hispania</a>, and <a href="/facts/Mauretania_Tingitana/omtPHASK">Mauretania</a>; and Constans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received <a href="/facts/Italia_(Roman_Empire)/ATT6F4dQ">Italy</a>, <a href="/facts/Africa_Province/MIYYrhIF">Africa</a>, <a href="/facts/Illyricum_(Roman_province)/vshA3zQD">Illyricum</a>, <a href="/facts/Pannonia/MMKTvSuW">Pannonia</a>, <a href="/facts/Macedonia_(Roman_province)/qMwQp7xd">Macedonia</a>, and <a href="/facts/Achaea_(Roman_province)/wMjU9hMh">Achaea</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p><p>Constantius then hurried east to <a href="/facts/Antioch/Evq0VtjE">Antioch</a> to resume the <a href="/facts/Perso-Roman_wars_of_337%E2%80%93361/yrzJqtXI">war with Persia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> While Constantius was away from the eastern frontier in early 337, King <a href="/facts/Shapur_II/QswbG5x1">Shapur II</a> assembled a large army, which included war elephants, and launched an attack on Roman territory, laying waste to Mesopotamia and putting the city of Nisibis under siege.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Despite initial success, Shapur lifted his siege after his army missed an opportunity to exploit a collapsed wall.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> When Constantius learned of Shapur's withdrawal from Roman territory, he prepared his army for a counter-attack. </p><p>Constantius repeatedly defended the eastern border against invasions by the <a href="/facts/Sassanid_Empire/JvbRevkA">Sassanid Empire</a> under Shapur. These conflicts were mainly limited to Sassanid sieges of the major fortresses of <a href="/facts/Roman_Mesopotamia/GFdMGCpQ">Roman Mesopotamia</a>, including <a href="/facts/Nisibis/Cq58XcG8">Nisibis</a> (<a href="/facts/Nusaybin/Cq58XcG8">Nusaybin</a>), <a href="/facts/Singara/QeVII3Xy">Singara</a>, and <a href="/facts/Diyarbakir/kHqcXpPe">Amida</a> (<a href="/facts/Diyarbakir/kHqcXpPe">Diyarbakir</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Although Shapur seems to have been victorious in most of these confrontations, the Sassanids were able to achieve little.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> However, the Romans won a decisive victory at the Battle of Narasara, killing Shapur's brother, Narses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Ultimately, Constantius was able to push back the invasion, and Shapur failed to make any significant gains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p><p>Meanwhile, Constantine II desired to retain control of Constans's realm, leading the brothers into open conflict. Constantine was killed in 340 near <a href="/facts/Aquileia/EJXmVo6t">Aquileia</a> during an ambush.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> As a result, Constans took control of his deceased brother's realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the empire. This division lasted until January 350, when Constans was assassinated by forces loyal to the <a href="/facts/Roman_usurper/QERHdhrv">usurper</a> <a href="/facts/Magnentius/dDfTSDES">Magnentius</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <h3>War against Magnentius</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Roman_civil_war_of_350%E2%80%93353/Rpba8W4U">Roman civil war of 350–353</a></p> <p>Constantius was determined to march west to fight the usurper.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial presence, he elevated his cousin <a href="/facts/Constantius_Gallus/1kEK22bl">Constantius Gallus</a> to <i>caesar</i> of the eastern provinces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters, <a href="/facts/Constantina/BfDzJwyA">Constantina</a>, to him.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p><p>Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with <a href="/facts/Vetranio/kGguP0zE">Vetranio</a>, a loyal general in <a href="/facts/Illyricum_(Roman_province)/vshA3zQD">Illyricum</a> who had recently been acclaimed emperor by his soldiers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Vetranio immediately sent letters to Constantius pledging his loyalty, which Constantius may have accepted simply in order to stop Magnentius from gaining more support. These events may have been spurred by the action of Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus. Constantius subsequently sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general's new position as <i>augustus</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly resigned his position and accepted Constantius's offer of a comfortable retirement in <a href="/facts/Bithynia/0cjyz71G">Bithynia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p><p>In 351, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in <a href="/facts/Pannonia/MMKTvSuW">Pannonia</a> with a large army. The ensuing <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Mursa_Major/w5gSKzSR">Battle of Mursa Major</a> was one of the largest and bloodiest battles ever between two Roman armies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> The result was a victory for Constantius, but a costly one. Magnentius survived the battle and, determined to fight on, withdrew into northern Italy. Rather than pursuing his opponent, however, Constantius turned his attention to securing the Danubian border, where he spent the early months of 352 campaigning against the <a href="/facts/Sarmatians/peXYHqbc">Sarmatians</a> along the middle <a href="/facts/Danube/8lMeM9xg">Danube</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> After achieving his aims, Constantius advanced on Magnentius in Italy. This action led the cities of Italy to switch their allegiance to him and eject the usurper's garrisons. Again, Magnentius withdrew, this time to southern <a href="/facts/Roman_Gaul/lwD5gbaV">Gaul</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p><p>In 353, Constantius and Magnentius met for the final time at the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Mons_Seleucus/3EYtCRmv">Battle of Mons Seleucus</a> in southern Gaul, and again Constantius emerged the victor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Magnentius, realizing the futility of continuing his position, committed suicide on 10 August 353.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="solo-reign">Solo reign</h2> <p>Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the <a href="/facts/Alamanni/46vLyWu5">Alamanni</a> on the Danube frontier. The campaign was successful and raiding by the Alamanni ceased temporarily. In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin Gallus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> Possibly as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alamanni and traveled to <a href="/facts/Mediolanum/5G32kf8B">Mediolanum</a> (<a href="/facts/Milan/0xrtbPdt">Milan</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p><p>In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned <a href="/facts/Ursicinus_(magister_equitum)/mCmoIaED">Ursicinus</a>, Gallus's <i><a href="/facts/Magister_equitum/4FgPMztG">magister equitum</a></i>, for reasons that remain unclear.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> Constantius then summoned Gallus and Constantina.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> Although Gallus and Constantina complied with the order at first, when Constantina died in <a href="/facts/Bithynia/0cjyz71G">Bithynia</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> Gallus began to hesitate. However, after some convincing by one of Constantius's agents,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Gallus continued his journey west, passing through <a href="/facts/Constantinople/fLcY371n">Constantinople</a> and <a href="/facts/Thracia_(Roman_province)/2lWn8WJ3">Thrace</a> to <a href="/facts/Poetovio/LdHdDyE8">Poetovio</a> (<a href="/facts/Ptuj/LdHdDyE8">Ptuj</a>) in <a href="/facts/Pannonia/MMKTvSuW">Pannonia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p><p>In Poetovio, Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of <a href="/facts/Barbatio/jjYcFntK">Barbatio</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> Gallus was then moved to <a href="/facts/Pula/SlkNDjR4">Pola</a> and interrogated. Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus's execution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order was delayed by <a href="/facts/Eusebius_(praepositus_sacri_cubiculi)/eVCVrLMF">Eusebius</a>, one of Constantius's eunuchs, and Gallus was executed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> </p> <h3>Religious issues</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Religious_policies_of_Constantius_II/kvXMmal3">Religious policies of Constantius II</a></p> <h4>Paganism</h4> <p>Laws dating from the 350s prescribed the death penalty for those who performed or attended pagan <a href="/facts/Sacrifice/nTYAYulo">sacrifices</a>, and for the worshipping of <a href="/facts/Cult_image/wblFa18C">idols</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> Pagan temples were shut down,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> and the <a href="/facts/Altar_of_Victory/fu6Gq3PK">Altar of Victory</a> was removed from the Senate meeting house.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> There were also frequent episodes of ordinary Christians destroying, pillaging and desecrating many ancient pagan temples, tombs and monuments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> Paganism was still popular among the population at the time. The emperor's policies were passively resisted by many governors and magistrates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> </p><p>In spite of this, Constantius never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the <a href="/facts/Vestal_Virgin/97Idc5rI">Vestal Virgins</a>. He never acted against the various pagan schools. At times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism. In fact, he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> Also, he remained <a href="/facts/Pontifex_maximus/hGJnFXlg">pontifex maximus</a> and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death. His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of <a href="/facts/Gratian/mqdtfhbF">Gratian</a>, that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> </p> <h4>Christianity</h4> <p>Although often considered an <a href="/facts/Arianism/c51Mv6Rk">Arian</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between <a href="/facts/Arianism/c51Mv6Rk">Arianism</a> and the <a href="/facts/Nicene_Creed/1zLPrdun">Nicene Creed</a>, retrospectively called <a href="/facts/Semi-Arianism/UQHEJbnm">Semi-Arianism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> During his reign he attempted to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, convening several Christian councils. "Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious," writes the historian <a href="/facts/A._H._M._Jones/0duzqvE1">A. H. M. Jones</a>. "The great councils of 359–60 are therefore not reckoned <a href="/facts/Ecumenical_council/I9e3cFPL">ecumenical</a> in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> </p><p>According to the <a href="/facts/Greek_historian/u8RHRN5u">Greek historian</a> <a href="/facts/Philostorgius/bWLpswkl">Philostorgius</a> (d. 439) in his <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, Constantius sent an <a href="/facts/Arianism/c51Mv6Rk">Arian</a> bishop known as <a href="/facts/Theophilos_the_Indian/KjEwbq6u">Theophilus the Indian</a> (also known as "Theophilus of Yemen") to <a href="/facts/Tharan_Yuhanim/TBEC0Yj5">Tharan Yuhanim</a>, then the king of the <a href="/facts/South_Arabia/K651cYek">South Arabian</a> <a href="/facts/Himyarite_Kingdom/1KqLhca0">Himyarite Kingdom</a> to convert the people to <a href="/facts/Christianity_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia/o6PGSzCm">Christianity</a>. According to the report, Theophilus succeeded in establishing three churches, one of them in the capital <a href="/facts/Zafar,_Yemen/kCJ6yapL">Zafar</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> </p> <h4>Judaism</h4> <p>Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> This included edicts to limit the ownership of slaves by Jewish people<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> Later edicts sought to discourage conversions from Christianity to Judaism by confiscating the <a href="/facts/Apostacy/9QAL3bjK">apostate's</a> property.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> However, Constantius's actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as with Jewish business—apparently, privately owned Jewish businesses were often in competition with state-owned businesses. As a result, Constantius may have sought to provide an advantage to state-owned businesses by limiting the skilled workers and slaves available to Jewish businesses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> </p> <h3>Further crises</h3> <p>On 11 August 355, the <i><a href="/facts/Magister_militum/sG9Cg1fb">magister militum</a></i> <a href="/facts/Claudius_Silvanus/ARsfPesG">Claudius Silvanus</a> revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Mursa_Major/w5gSKzSR">Battle of Mursa Major</a>. Constantius had made him <i>magister militum</i> in 353 with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius's court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he received a letter from Constantius recalling him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt. <a href="/facts/Ursicinus_(magister_equitum)/mCmoIaED">Ursicinus</a>, who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed. </p><p>Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself. So on 6 November 355,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> he elevated his last remaining male relative, <a href="/facts/Julian_the_Apostate/4ecggf42">Julian</a>, to the rank of <i>caesar</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> A few days later, Julian was married to <a href="/facts/Helena,_wife_of_Julian/AdtlDNz0">Helena</a>, the last surviving sister of Constantius.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> Constantius soon sent Julian off to Gaul.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> </p> <p>Constantius spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the empire primarily from his base at Mediolanum. In April–May 357 he visited <a href="/facts/Rome/bh1Ttx3T">Rome</a> for the only time in his life. The same year, he forced <a href="/facts/Sarmatians/peXYHqbc">Sarmatian</a> and <a href="/facts/Quadi/a7fplDkT">Quadi</a> invaders out of Pannonia and <a href="/facts/Moesia/bw41LUd4">Moesia Inferior</a>, then led a successful counter-attack across the Danube.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> </p><p>In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from <a href="/facts/Shapur_II/QswbG5x1">Shapur II</a> who demanded that Rome restore the lands surrendered by <a href="/facts/Narseh/uPmCvhXt">Narseh</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> Despite rejecting these terms,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> Constantius tried to avert war with the <a href="/facts/Sassanid_Empire/JvbRevkA">Sassanid Empire</a> by sending two embassies to Shapur II.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> Shapur II nevertheless launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. In 360, when news reached Constantius that Shapur II had destroyed <a href="/facts/Singara/QeVII3Xy">Singara</a> (<a href="/facts/Sinjar/q03mw7E3">Sinjar</a>),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> and taken <a href="/facts/Hasankeyf/3TegCmLT">Kiphas</a> (<a href="/facts/Hasankeyf/3TegCmLT">Hasankeyf</a>), Amida (Diyarbakır),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> and Ad Tigris (<a href="/facts/Cizre/bypK73WY">Cizre</a>),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> he decided to travel east to face the re-emergent threat. </p> <h3>Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east</h3> <p>In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the <a href="/facts/Alamanni/46vLyWu5">Alamanni</a>, who had once again invaded <a href="/facts/Roman_Gaul/lwD5gbaV">Roman Gaul</a>. However, when Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian's army for the eastern campaign, the Gallic legions revolted and proclaimed Julian <i>augustus</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> </p><p>On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of <i>augustus</i> and be satisfied with that of <i>caesar</i>. By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the <a href="/facts/Sassanid_Empire/JvbRevkA">Sassanids</a> remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to re-take the fortress of Ad Tigris.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a> After a time he had withdrawn to <a href="/facts/Antioch/Evq0VtjE">Antioch</a> to regroup and prepare for a confrontation with <a href="/facts/Shapur_II/QswbG5x1">Shapur II</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a> The campaigns of the previous year had inflicted heavy losses on the Sassanids, however, and they did not attempt another round of campaigns that year. This temporary respite in hostilities allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing Julian.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> </p> <h3>Death</h3> <p>Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached <a href="/facts/Mopsuestia/8FFJoBRl">Mopsuestia</a> in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. The sources claim that realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the <a href="/facts/Semi-Arianism/UQHEJbnm">Semi-Arian</a> bishop of <a href="/facts/Antioch/Evq0VtjE">Antioch</a>, and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a> Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a> </p><p>Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the <a href="/facts/Church_of_the_Holy_Apostles/aqVxEXr0">Church of the Holy Apostles</a>, in a <a href="/facts/Porphyry_(geology)/7K4IzbvF">porphyry sarcophagus</a> that was described in the 10th century by <a href="/facts/Constantine_VII/AXlDmaVh">Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus</a> in the <i><a href="/facts/De_Ceremoniis/xhtqwQRr">De Ceremoniis</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="marriages-and-children">Marriages and children</h2> <p>Constantius II was married three times: </p><p>First to a <a href="/facts/Daughter_of_Julius_Constantius/tlkcv8GJ">daughter</a> of his half-uncle <a href="/facts/Julius_Constantius/Y30zz11Y">Julius Constantius</a>, whose name is unknown. She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian. She died c. 352/3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a> </p><p>Second, to <a href="/facts/Eusebia_(empress)/AKEEjt4y">Eusebia</a>, a woman of <a href="/facts/Ancient_Macedonians/9jEwboFN">Macedonian</a> origin, originally from the city of <a href="/facts/Thessaloniki/o3BFhhPR">Thessalonica</a>, whom Constantius married before his defeat of Magnentius in 353. She died before 361.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> </p><p>Third and lastly, in 361, to <a href="/facts/Faustina_(wife_of_Constantius_II)/3ysMKNrF">Faustina</a>, who gave birth to Constantius's only child, a posthumous daughter named <a href="/facts/Constantia_(wife_of_Gratian)/eQ8IR6XN">Constantia</a>, who later married Emperor <a href="/facts/Gratian/mqdtfhbF">Gratian</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="family-tree">Family tree</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Constantinian_dynasty/4ACsrp6W">Constantinian dynasty</a></p> <table><tbody><tr><th><ul><li>v</li><li>t</li><li>e</li></ul>CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree</th></tr><tr><td><table><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Afranius_Hannibalianus/wW6NToNv">Afranius Hannibalianus</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Eutropia/uHMzt7mf">Eutropia</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Maximian/Bfhf6oCY">Maximian</a>Western emperor</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Flavia_Maximiana_Theodora/RelaGLzz">Theodora</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantius_Chlorus/YX5SFTF2">Constantius I</a> ChlorusWestern emperor250-305-306</td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Helena_(mother_of_Constantine)/robIFYKB">Helena</a>250–330</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Maxentius/BG0hzPLG">Maxentius</a>Western emperor</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Flavia_Julia_Constantia/sH0sqaes">Constantia</a>293–330∞ <a href="/facts/Licinius/726hJYdG">Licinius</a>250-308-324-325</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Flavius_Dalmatius/DqYrjeFY">Flavius Dalmatius</a>censor</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2">1.<a href="/facts/Galla_(wife_of_Julius_Constantius)/XdWGJnJx">Galla</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Julius_Constantius/Y30zz11Y">Julius Constantius</a>d. 337∞ 2.Basilina</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Anastasia_(4th_century)/8db57oD0">Anastasia</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2">Eutropia</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Fausta/JlWrlUr9">Fausta</a>289–326</td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantine_The_Great/jW1q8TPp">Constantine I</a> the Great272-306-337</td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Minervina/DscHoj4u">Minervina</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Dalmatius/J0S943rD">Dalmatius</a>caesar</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Hannibalianus/ktdH3BwM">Hannibalianus</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2">(1) <a href="/facts/Constantius_Gallus/1kEK22bl">Constantius Gallus</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2">(2) <a href="/facts/Julian_the_Apostate/4ecggf42">Julian</a>331-360-363</td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Helena_(wife_of_Julian)/AdtlDNz0">Helena</a>d. 360</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantina/BfDzJwyA">Constantina</a>∞ 1.<a href="/facts/Hannibalianus/ktdH3BwM">Hannibalianus</a>2.<a href="/facts/Constantius_Gallus/1kEK22bl">Constantius Gallus</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2">Constantius II317-337-361∞ <a href="/facts/Faustina_(wife_of_Constantius_II)/3ysMKNrF">Faustina</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantine_II_(emperor)/FwUu1CSS">Constantine II</a>Western emperor316-337-340</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constans_I/Q1GzfjqH">Constans I</a>Western emperor320-337-350</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2">(daughter)∞ Justus</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Crispus/VAbFIzuX">Crispus</a>d. 326</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Jovian_(Emperor)/e0sC2ces">Jovian</a>331-363-364</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Marina_Severa/PjljC1VC">Marina Severa</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Valentinian_I/48ukbyEa">Valentinian I</a>Western emperor<a href="/facts/Valentinianic_dynasty/zgc5abuP">VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Justina_(empress)/MNuNjtdY">Justina</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantia_(wife_of_Gratian)/eQ8IR6XN">Constantia</a>361–383</td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Gratian/mqdtfhbF">Gratian</a>Western emperor359-367-383</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Galla_(wife_of_Theodosius_I)/XxIMqnWl">Galla</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Theodosius_I/3vN2WcdH">Theodosius I</a>Eastern emperor<a href="/facts/Theodosian_dynasty/ajPATmeY">THEODOSIAN DYNASTY</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tbody><tr><th>Family of Constantius II</th></tr><tr><td><p>Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as <a href="/facts/Augusti/1mHIqsde">Augusti</a>, names with a thicker border appear in both sections</p><p>1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings</p><table><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li><a href="/facts/Claudius_Gothicus/JtMwjrNl">Claudius Gothicus</a></li><li>268–270</li><li><i>fabricated ancestry</i></li></ul></td></tr><tr></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Helena,_mother_of_Constantine_I/robIFYKB">Helena</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li><a href="/facts/Constantius_I/YX5SFTF2">Constantius I</a></li><li>305–306</li></ul></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Flavia_Maximiana_Theodora/RelaGLzz">Flavia Maximiana Theodora</a></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li>Constantine I</li><li>306–337</li></ul></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Flavius_Dalmatius/DqYrjeFY">Flavius Dalmatius</a></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2">Hannibalianus</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Flavia_Julia_Constantia/sH0sqaes">Flavia Julia Constantia</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li><a href="/facts/Licinius/726hJYdG">Licinius</a></li><li>308–324</li></ul></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2">Anastasia</td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Bassianus_(executed_by_Constantine)/QtvBfMT3">Bassianus</a></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Galla_(wife_of_Julius_Constantius)/XdWGJnJx">Galla</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Julius_Constantius/Y30zz11Y">Julius Constantius</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Basilina/dwjJ6vLW">Basilina</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Licinius_II/Bqmhmp3W">Licinius II</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Eutropia_(sister_of_Constantine_I)/YsYjbptI">Eutropia</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2">Virius Nepotianus</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr></tr><tr><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Hannibalianus/ktdH3BwM">Hannibalianus</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantina/BfDzJwyA">Constantina</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantius_Gallus/1kEK22bl">Constantius Gallus</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li><a href="/facts/Julian_(emperor)/4ecggf42">Julian</a></li><li>360–363</li></ul></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Helena_(wife_of_Julian)/AdtlDNz0">Helena</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nepotianus/r0MnUQaR">Nepotianus</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td></tr></tbody></table><p>2: Constantine's children</p><table><tbody><tr><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Minervina/DscHoj4u">Minervina</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li>Constantine I</li><li>306–337</li></ul></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Fausta/JlWrlUr9">Fausta</a></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Crispus/VAbFIzuX">Crispus</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li><a href="/facts/Constantine_II_(emperor)/FwUu1CSS">Constantine II</a></li><li>337–340</li></ul></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li><a href="/facts/Constans/Q1GzfjqH">Constans</a></li><li>337–350</li></ul></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Hannibalianus/ktdH3BwM">Hannibalianus</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantina/BfDzJwyA">Constantina</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantius_Gallus/1kEK22bl">Constantius Gallus</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Faustina_(wife_of_Constantius_II)/3ysMKNrF">Faustina</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li>Constantius II</li><li>337–361</li></ul></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Helena_(wife_of_Julian)/AdtlDNz0">Helena</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li><a href="/facts/Julian_(emperor)/4ecggf42">Julian</a></li><li>360–363</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><ul><li><a href="/facts/Gratian/mqdtfhbF">Gratian</a></li><li>367–383</li></ul></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Constantia_(wife_of_Gratian)/eQ8IR6XN">Constantia</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="reputation">Reputation</h2> <p>According to DiMaio and Frakes, “...Constantius is hard for the modern historian to fully understand both due to his own actions and due to the interests of the authors of primary sources for his reign.”<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a> A. H. M. Jones writes that he "appears in the pages of <a href="/facts/Ammianus_Marcellinus/Q9Mf1KeS">Ammianus</a> as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a> However, Kent and M. and A. Hirmer suggest that the emperor "has suffered at the hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike. To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to <a href="/facts/Julian_(emperor)/4ecggf42">Julian the Apostate</a> and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler". They go on to add, "Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a> </p><p> Eutropius wrote of him,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a></p><blockquote><p>He was a man of a remarkably tranquil disposition, good-natured, trusting too much to his friends and courtiers, and at last too much in the power of his wives. He conducted himself with great moderation in the commencement of his reign; he enriched his friends, and suffered none, whose active services he had experienced, to go unrewarded. He was however somewhat inclined to severity, whenever any suspicion of an attempt on the government was excited in him; otherwise he was gentle. His fortune is more to be praised in civil than in foreign wars.</p></blockquote> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Persian_wars_of_Constantius_II/yrzJqtXI">Persian wars of Constantius II</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Itineraries_of_the_Roman_emperors,_337%E2%80%93363/qtGykvHt">Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–363</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="sources">Sources</h2> <h3>Ancient sources</h3> <ul><li>Ammianus Marcellinus. <i>Res Gestae</i>. <ul><li>Yonge, Charles Duke, trans. <i>Roman History</i>. London: Bohn, 1862. Online at <a href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/ammianus_00_eintro.htm">Tertullian</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li> <li>Rolfe, J.C., trans. <i>History</i>. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1939–52. Online at <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Ammian/home.html">LacusCurtius</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li> <li>Hamilton, Walter, trans. <i>The Later Roman Empire (A.D. 354–378)</i>. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986. [Abridged edition]</li></ul></li> <li>Athanasius of Alexandria. <ul><li><i>Festal Index</i>. <ul><li>Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. <i>Festal Letters</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.xxv.iii.iii.html">Christian Classics Ethereal Library</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Epistula encyclica</i> (<i>Encyclical letter</i>). Summer 339. <ul><li>Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. <i>Encyclical letter</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2807.htm">New Advent</a> and <a href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.xii.ii.i.html">Christian Classics Ethereal Library</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Apologia Contra Arianos</i> (<i>Defense against the Arians</i>). 349. <ul><li>Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. <i>Apologia Contra Arianos</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2808.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 14 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Apologia ad Constantium</i> (<i>Defense before Constantius</i>). 353. <ul><li>Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. <i>Apologia ad Constantium</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2813.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 14 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Historia Arianorum</i> (<i>History of the Arians</i>). 357. <ul><li>Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. <i>Historia Arianorum</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2815.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 14 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>De Synodis</i> (<i>On the Councils of Arminium and Seleucia</i>). Autumn 359. <ul><li>Newman, John Henry and Archibald Robertson, trans. <i>De Synodis</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2817.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Historia acephala</i>. 368 – c. 420. <ul><li>Robertson, Archibald, trans. <i>Historia Acephala</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2820.htm">New Advent</a> and <a href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.xxv.ii.ii.html">Christian Classics Ethereal Library</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Chronica minora</i> 1, 2. <ul><li>Mommsen, T., ed. <i>Chronica Minora saec. IV, V, VI, VII</i> 1, 2 (in Latin). <i>Monumenta Germaniae Historia</i>, Auctores Antiquissimi 9, 11. Berlin, 1892, 1894. Online at <a href="https://archive.today/20120708060352/http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/">"Bayerische StaatsBibliothek"</a>. Archived from <a href="http://bsbdmgh.bsb.lrz-muenchen.de/dmgh_new/">the original</a> on 8 July 2012.. Accessed 25 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Codex Theodosianus</i>. <ul><li>Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. <i>Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes</i>2 (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann, [1905] 1954. Complied by Nicholas Palmer, revised by <a href="/facts/Tony_Honor%C3%A9/kSLNw3xG">Tony Honoré</a> for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R.W.B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online at <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090826174516/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/history2/volterra/texts/cthinfo.htm">University College London</a> and the <a href="http://web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Constitutiones/codtheod.html">University of Grenoble</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100618051844/http://web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Constitutiones/codtheod.html">Archived</a> 18 June 2010 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>. Accessed 25 August 2009.</li> <li>Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at <a href="http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/">AncientRome.ru</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Codex Justinianus</i>. <ul><li>Scott, Samuel P., trans. <i>The Code of Justinian</i>, in <i>The Civil Law</i>. 17 vols. 1932. Online at the <a href="http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps.htm">Constitution Society</a>. 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Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at <a href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm">De Imperatoribus Romanis</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201108100827/http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm">Archived</a> 8 November 2020 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Eunapius. <i>Lives of the Sophists</i>.</li> <li>Eusebius of Caesarea. <ul><li><i>Oratio de Laudibus Constantini</i> (<i>Oration in Praise of Constantine</i>, sometimes the <i>Tricennial Oration</i>). <ul><li>Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. <i>Oration in Praise of Constantine</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2504.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 16 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Vita Constantini</i> (<i>Life of Constantine</i>). <ul><li>Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. <i>Life of Constantine</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2502.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 25 August 2009.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Eutropius_(historian)/Mxnk01Vt">Eutropius</a>. <i>Historiae Romanae Breviarium</i>. <ul><li>Watson, John Selby, trans. <i>Abridgment of Roman History</i>. London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Revised and edited for Tertullian by Roger Pearse, 2003. Online at <a href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm">Tertullian</a>. Accessed 11 June 2010.</li></ul></li> <li>Festus. <i>Breviarium</i>. <ul><li>Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. <i>Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People</i>. <i>Canisius College Translated Texts</i> 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001. Online at <a href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/festus.htm">De Imperatoribus Romanis</a>(). Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Firmicus Maternus. <i>De errore profanarum religionum</i> (<i>On the error of profane religions</i>). <ul><li>Baluzii and Rigaltii, eds. <i>Divi Cæcilii Cypriani, Carthaginensis Episcopi, Opera Omnia; accessit J. Firmici Materni, Viri Clarissimi, De Errore Profanarum Religionum</i> (in Latin). Paris: Gauthier Brothers and the Society of Booksellers, 1836. Online at <a href="https://books.google.com/books†id=Zow7AAAAcAAJ">Google Books</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Hilary of Poitiers. <i>Ad Constantium</i> (<i>To Constantius</i>). <ul><li>Feder, Alfred Leonhard, ed. <i>S. Hilarii episcopi Pictaviensis Tractatus mysteriorum. Collectanea Antiariana Parisina (fragmenta historica) cum appendice (liber I Ad Constantium). Liber ad Constantium imperatorem (Liber II ad Constantium). Hymni. Fragmenta minora. Spuria</i> (in Latin). In the <i>Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum</i>, Vol. 65. Vienna: Tempsky, 1916.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Itinerarium Alexandri</i> (<i>Itinerary of Alexander</i>). <ul><li>Mai, Angelo, ed. <i>Itinerarium Alexandri ad Constantium Augustum, Constantini M. Filium</i> (in Latin). Regiis Typis, 1818. Online at <a href="https://books.google.com/books†id=LaB9JC1Fm6kC">Google Books</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li> <li>Davies, Iolo, trans. <i>Itinerary of Alexander</i>. 2009. Online at <a href="http://papyri.info/idp_static/current/ddb-citations-p+abinn.html">DocStoc</a>[<i>dead link</i>]. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Jerome. <ul><li><i>Chronicon</i> (<i>Chronicle</i>). <ul><li>Pearse, Roger, <i>et al.</i>, trans. <i>The Chronicle of St. Jerome</i>, in <i>Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts</i>. Tertullian, 2005. Online at <a href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_00_eintro.htm">Tertullian</a>. Accessed 14 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>de Viris Illustribus</i> (<i>On Illustrious Men</i>). <ul><li>Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. <i>De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men)</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Julian. <ul><li><a href="/facts/Wilmer_Cave_Wright/19bJWxqM">Wright, Wilmer Cave</a>, trans. <i>Works of the Emperor Julian</i>. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1913. Online at the Internet Archive: <a href="https://archive.org/details/workswithenglish01juliuoft">Vol. 1</a>, <a href="https://archive.org/details/workswithenglish02juliuoft">2</a>, <a href="https://archive.org/details/workswithenglish03juliuoft">3</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>Libanius. <i>Oratio</i> 59 (<i>Oration</i> 59). <ul><li>M.H. Dodgeon, trans. <i>The Sons of Constantine: Libanius Or. LIX</i>. In <i>From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views, A Source History</i>, edited by S.N.C. Lieu and <a href="/facts/Dominic_Montserrat/DpXuPpU3">Dominic Montserrat</a>, 164–205. London: Routledge, 1996. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-415-09336-8</li></ul></li> <li><i>Origo Constantini Imperatoris</i>. <ul><li>Rolfe, J.C., trans. <i>Excerpta Valesiana</i>, in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus's <i>History</i>. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Excerpta_Valesiana/1*.html">LacusCurtius</a>. Accessed 16 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Abinnaeus_Archive/jFRgJ9Sj">Papyri Abinnaeus</a></i>. <ul><li><i>The Abinnaeus Archive: Papers of a Roman Officer in the Reign of Constantius II</i> (in Greek). Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri. Online at <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.05.0052&query=document%3D%231">Perseus</a> and the <a href="http://papyri.info/idp_static/current/ddb-citations-p+abinn.html">Duke Data Bank</a>[<i>dead link</i>]. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Papyri Laurentius</i>. <ul><li><i>Dai Papiri della Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana</i> (in Greek). Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri. Online at <a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=AC847D304432C05A3A6019E311003F54?doc=Perseus:text:1999.05.0147">Perseus</a> and the <a href="http://papyri.info/idp_static/current/ddb-citations-p+laur.html">Duke Data Bank</a>[<i>dead link</i>]. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Philostorgius. <i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i>. <ul><li>Walford, Edward, trans. <i>Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople</i>. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at <a href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/philostorgius.htm">Tertullian</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Socrates. <i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i> (<i>History of the Church</i>). <ul><li>Zenos, A.C., trans. <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2601.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 14 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Sozomen. <i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i> (<i>History of the Church</i>). <ul><li>Hartranft, Chester D. <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2602.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Sulpicius Severus. <i>Sacred History</i>. <ul><li>Roberts, Alexander, trans. <i>Sacred History</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 11. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1894. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3505.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 14 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Theodoret. <i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i> (<i>History of the Church</i>). <ul><li>Jackson, Blomfield, trans. <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>. From <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2702.htm">New Advent</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009.</li></ul></li> <li>Themistius. <i>Orationes</i> (<i>Orations</i>).</li> <li><a href="/facts/Theophanes_the_Confessor/SDzoXkxg">Theophanes</a>. <i>Chronicle</i>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Joannes_Zonaras/DTt2nqM4">Zonaras</a>. <i>Extracts of History</i>.</li> <li>Zosimus. <i>Historia Nova</i> (<i>New History</i>). <ul><li>Unknown trans. <i>The History of Count Zosimus</i>. London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at <a href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus00_intro.htm">Tertullian</a>. Accessed 15 August 2009. [An unsatisfactory edition.]</li> <li>Unknown trans. <i>Histoire Nouvelle</i> and <i>ΖΩΣΙΜΟΥ ΚΟΜΙΤΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΠΟΦΙΣΚΟΣΥΝΗΓΟΡΟΥ</i> (in French and Greek). Online at the <a href="http://pot-pourri.fltr.ucl.ac.be/files/aclassftp/TEXTES/Zosimus/">Catholic University of Louvain</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091201133558/http://pot-pourri.fltr.ucl.ac.be/files/AClassftp/Textes/Zosimus/">Archived</a> 1 December 2009 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>. Accessed 16 November 2009.</li></ul></li></ul> <h3>Modern sources</h3> <ul><li>Baker-Brian, N. and Tougher, S., <i>The Sons of Constantine, AD 337–361: In the Shadows of Constantine and Julian</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020)</li> <li>Baker-Brian, Nicholas (2022). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LzZwEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Reign of Constantius II</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-0006-1991-1.</li> <li>Banchich, T. M., 'DIR-Gallus' from <i>De Imperatoribus Romanis</i> <a href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm">[2]</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081210150345/http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm">Archived</a> 10 December 2008 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Barnes, Timothy David (1993). <a href="https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up"><i>Athanasius and Constantius: theology and politics in the Constantinian empire</i></a>. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-674-05067-3.</li> <li>Burgess, R.W. (2008). "The Summer of Blood: The 'Great Massacre' of 337 and the Promotion of the Sons of Constantine". <i>Dumbarton Oaks Papers</i>. 62: 5–51. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20788042">20788042</a>.</li> <li>Crawford, Peter (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_aJBDQAAQBAJ"><i>Constantius II: Usurpers, Eunuchs, and the Antichrist</i></a>. Pen & Sword. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-78340-055-3.</li> <li>Dingas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007). <i>Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>DiMaio, M., and Frakes, R., <a href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/constaii.htm">"Constantius II,"</a> from <i><a href="/facts/De_Imperatoribus_Romanis/yJYq7mbn">De Imperatoribus Romanis</a></i></li> <li>DiMaio, Michael (23 January 1992). "Per Vim, per Caedem, per Bellum : A Study of Murder and Ecclesiastical Politics in the Year 337 A.D.". <i>Byzantion</i>. 62: 158–211. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44171626">44171626</a>.</li> <li>Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zoZIxpQ8A2IC"><i>The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226–363 AD)</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-415-00342-3.</li> <li>Drinkwater, John F. (2007). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wBJREAAAQBAJ"><i>The Alamanni and Rome 213–496. Caracalla to Clovis</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-929568-5.</li> <li>Errington, R. Malcolm (2006). <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanimperialpol0000erri"><i>Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius</i></a>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-8078-3038-0.</li> <li>Gaddis, Michael. <i>There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ. Religious violence in the Christian Roman Empire</i>. University of California Press, 2005. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-520-24104-6.</li> <li>Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In <a href="/facts/Averil_Cameron/HmExgU9R">Averil Cameron</a> & <a href="/facts/Peter_Garnsey/RkukzwHN">Peter Garnsey</a> (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-30200-5.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Arnold_Hugh_Martin_Jones/0duzqvE1">Jones, A. H. M.</a> <i>The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey</i> [Paperback, vol. 1] <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-8018-3353-1 Basil Blackwell Ltd. 1964.</li> <li><a href="/facts/A._H._M._Jones/0duzqvE1">Jones, A.H.M.</a>; <a href="/facts/John_Robert_Martindale/MxSj6Xjk">J.R. Martindale</a> & <a href="/facts/John_Morris_(historian)/dDhknRsS">J. Morris</a> (1971). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uOHw4idqAeYC"><i>The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-07233-6.</li> <li>Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. <i>Roman Coins</i> (Thames and Hudson, 1978)</li> <li>Matthews, John (1989). <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireofamm0000matt_n9f6"><i>The Roman Empire of Ammianus</i></a>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-9799-7132-7.</li> <li>Moser, Muriel. 2018. Emperor and Senators in the Reign of Constantius II. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Pelikan, J.J., <i>The Christian Tradition</i> (University of Chicago, 1989)</li> <li>Potter, David S. (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott"><i>The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395</i></a>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-415-10057-7.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Michele_R._Salzman/eg3TQ9Aq">Salzman, Michele Renee</a> (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9JGzYaUQyt4C"><i>The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire</i></a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-674-00641-6.</li> <li>Schäfer, Peter (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YBarWAR2qVkC"><i>The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-30585-3.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Otto_Seeck/gdIwjyw8">Seeck, Otto</a>, "Constantius 4", <i><a href="/facts/Realencyclop%C3%A4die_der_classischen_Altertumswissenschaft/pU2vFUJ1">Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</a></i>, volume IV.1, Stuttgart, 1900, columns 1044–1094.</li> <li>Vagi, David L. (2001). <i>Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480</i>. Fitzroy Dearborn. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-57958-316-3.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Alexander_Kazhdan/VkGPcSod">Vasiliev, Alexander</a> (1958). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EXiWAwAAQBAJ"><i>History of the Byzantine Empire 324–1453</i></a>. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0299809250.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flavius Iulius Constantius. Wikiquote has quotations related to <i>Constantius II</i>. <ul><li>This <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081025063840/http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/imperial-laws-chart-364">list of Roman laws of the fourth century</a> shows laws passed by Constantius II relating to Christianity.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>The origin of the name "Julius" is not known. It may have been added to his name in honour of one of Constantine's relatives, as one view identifies a "Julia Constantia" as Constantius I's mother.[5] It was likely not in honour of Helena, mother of Constantine I, as she probably only adopted the name "Julia" just before her death.[6] <a href="/wiki/Constantius_I" target="_blank">/wiki/Constantius_I</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 226. - Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uOHw4idqAeYC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uOHw4idqAeYC</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu, pp. 152–153. - Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226–363 AD). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-00342-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zoZIxpQ8A2IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=zoZIxpQ8A2IC</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu, pp. 152–153. - Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226–363 AD). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-00342-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zoZIxpQ8A2IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=zoZIxpQ8A2IC</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Julian, Orationes I, 13B <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Festus, breviarum 27, pp. 2–3, 67 <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII, 9, 1 <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 1. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Burgess 2008, p. 10. - Burgess, R.W. (2008). "The Summer of Blood: The 'Great Massacre' of 337 and the Promotion of the Sons of Constantine". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 62: 5–51. JSTOR 20788042. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20788042" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/20788042</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 3. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Julian, "Letter to the senate and people of Athens", 270. The full text of Letter to the senate and people of Athens at Wikisource <a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" target="_blank">/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Burgess 2008, p. 25. - Burgess, R.W. (2008). "The Summer of Blood: The 'Great Massacre' of 337 and the Promotion of the Sons of Constantine". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 62: 5–51. JSTOR 20788042. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20788042" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/20788042</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.9 <a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" target="_blank">/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Julian, "Letter to the senate and people of Athens", 271. The full text of Letter to the senate and people of Athens at Wikisource <a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" target="_blank">/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>DiMaio 1992, p. 165. - DiMaio, Michael (23 January 1992). "Per Vim, per Caedem, per Bellum : A Study of Murder and Ecclesiastical Politics in the Year 337 A.D.". Byzantion. 62: 158–211. JSTOR 44171626. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44171626" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/44171626</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Julian, "Letter to the senate and people of Athens", 270. The full text of Letter to the senate and people of Athens at Wikisource <a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" target="_blank">/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Burgess 2008, pp. 26–27. - Burgess, R.W. (2008). "The Summer of Blood: The 'Great Massacre' of 337 and the Promotion of the Sons of Constantine". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 62: 5–51. JSTOR 20788042. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20788042" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/20788042</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>By 351–354, Constantius’s courtiers stopped denying his involvement and instead claimed he was tormented with guilt over his role in the massacre.[16][22] <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 4. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 4. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Hunt 1998, pp. 11–12. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Theodoret, Historia Ecclesiastica II, 30, 1–14, GCS <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 12. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Theodoret, Historia Ecclesiastica II, 30, 1–14, GCS <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 13. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Festus, Brevarium XXVII <a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" target="_blank">/wiki/Festus_(historian)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Dingas & Winter 2007, p. 89. - Dingas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007). Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 13. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Dingas & Winter 2007, p. 89. - Dingas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007). Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 5. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Drinkwater 2007, p. 199. - Drinkwater, John F. (2007). The Alamanni and Rome 213–496. Caracalla to Clovis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929568-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wBJREAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wBJREAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Crawford 2016, p. 64. - Crawford, Peter (2016). Constantius II: Usurpers, Eunuchs, and the Antichrist. Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-78340-055-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_aJBDQAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_aJBDQAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 11. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Potter 2004, p. 471. - Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Crawford 2016, p. 72. - Crawford, Peter (2016). Constantius II: Usurpers, Eunuchs, and the Antichrist. Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-78340-055-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_aJBDQAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=_aJBDQAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Errington 2006, p. 16. - Errington, R. Malcolm (2006). Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-3038-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanimperialpol0000erri" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/romanimperialpol0000erri</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Barnes 1993, p. 105. - Barnes, Timothy David (1993). Athanasius and Constantius: theology and politics in the Constantinian empire. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-05067-3. <a href="https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Potter 2004, p. 472. - Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 17. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Barnes 1993, p. 101. - Barnes, Timothy David (1993). Athanasius and Constantius: theology and politics in the Constantinian empire. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-05067-3. <a href="https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Potter 2004, p. 472. - Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Hunt 1998, pp. 16–17. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Potter 2004, p. 473. - Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 20. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Potter 2004, p. 474. - Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Potter 2004, p. 474. - Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Barnes 1993, p. 106. - Barnes, Timothy David (1993). Athanasius and Constantius: theology and politics in the Constantinian empire. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-05067-3. <a href="https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Potter 2004, p. 474. - Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 22. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Drinkwater 2007, p. 201. - Drinkwater, John F. (2007). The Alamanni and Rome 213–496. Caracalla to Clovis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929568-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wBJREAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wBJREAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Barnes 1993, p. 106. - Barnes, Timothy David (1993). Athanasius and Constantius: theology and politics in the Constantinian empire. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-05067-3. <a href="https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/athanasiusconsta0000barn/page/n9/mode/1up</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 14.1.10 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.10.16 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.3–5 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.6 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.6 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.11–12 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.19 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>"Banchich, T. M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis". Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 2 March 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081210150345/http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20081210150345/http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.20 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.22 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.23 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Zonaras, Extracts of History XIII.9.20 <a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" target="_blank">/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Libanius, Orations XVIII.152 <a href="/wiki/Libanius" target="_blank">/wiki/Libanius</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.1 <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>"Banchich, T. M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis". Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 2 March 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081210150345/http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20081210150345/http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Kirsch, J. (2004) God against the Gods, pp.200-1, Viking Compass <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>The Codex Theodosianus On Religion, 16.10.2 <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Theodosian Code 16.10.6 <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>"'The Codex Theodosianus On Religion', XVI.x.4, 4 CE". <a href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.html" target="_blank">http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.html</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>"A History of the Church", Philip Hughes, Sheed & Ward, rev ed 1949, vol I chapter 6.[1] Archived 23 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/HUGHHIST.TXT" target="_blank">http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/HUGHHIST.TXT</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Sheridan, J.J. (1966) The Altar of Victor – Paganism's Last Battle. in L'Antiquite Classique 35 : 186–187. <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae 22.4.3 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Sozomen Ecclesiastical History 3.18. <a href="/wiki/Sozomen" target="_blank">/wiki/Sozomen</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Theodosian Code 16.10.3 <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Theodosian Code 9.17.2 <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>"A History of the Church", Philip Hughes, Sheed & Ward, rev ed 1949, vol I chapter 6.[1] Archived 23 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/HUGHHIST.TXT" target="_blank">http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/HUGHHIST.TXT</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae 9.10, 19.12. quote summary: Ammianus describes Pagan sacrifices and worship taking place openly in Alexandria and Rome. The Roman Calendar of 354 cites many Pagan festivals as though they were still being openly observed. See also the descriptions of Pagan worship in the following works: Firmicius Maternus De Errore Profanorum Religionum; Vetus Orbis Descriptio Graeci Scriptoris sub Constantio. <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>Bowder, D. (1978) The Age of Constantine and Julian <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>Vasiliev 1958, p. 68. - Vasiliev, Alexander (1958). History of the Byzantine Empire 324–1453. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299809250. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EXiWAwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=EXiWAwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>Salzman 2002, p. 182. - Salzman, Michele Renee (2002). The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00641-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9JGzYaUQyt4C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=9JGzYaUQyt4C</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>Jones 1964, p. 118. - Jones, A. H. M. The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey [Paperback, vol. 1] ISBN 0-8018-3353-1 Basil Blackwell Ltd. 1964. <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>Pelikan, J. J., The Christian Tradition (1989), pp. 209–210 <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>Gaddis 2005, p. 92. - Gaddis, Michael. There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ. Religious violence in the Christian Roman Empire. University of California Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-520-24104-6. <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>Jones 1964, p. 118. - Jones, A. H. M. The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey [Paperback, vol. 1] ISBN 0-8018-3353-1 Basil Blackwell Ltd. 1964. <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>Fisher, Greg (2020). Rome, Persia, and Arabia: shaping the Middle East from Pompey to Muhammad. London & New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-415-72880-5. <a href="978-0-415-72880-5" target="_blank">978-0-415-72880-5</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>Schäfer 2003, p. 180-181. - Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YBarWAR2qVkC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=YBarWAR2qVkC</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2 <a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" target="_blank">/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2 <a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" target="_blank">/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>Codex Theodosianus 16.8.7 <a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" target="_blank">/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>Schäfer 2003, pp. 180–181. - Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YBarWAR2qVkC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=YBarWAR2qVkC</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.17 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.5–16 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.18 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.18 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVI.12 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:97"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.5.3–8 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:98"><p>Zonaras, Extracts of History XII.9.25–27 <a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" target="_blank">/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:99"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.5.9–14 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:100"><p>Zonaras, Extracts of History XII.9.28–29 <a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" target="_blank">/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:101"><p>Libanius, Epistle 331 <a href="/wiki/Libanius" target="_blank">/wiki/Libanius</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:102"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.14.1–3 & XVIII.6.17–18 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:103"><p>Eunapius, Lives of the Sophists VI. 5.1–10 <a href="/wiki/Eunapius" target="_blank">/wiki/Eunapius</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:104"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.6 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:105"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIX <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:106"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.7.1–16 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:107"><p>Drinkwater 2007, p. 253. - Drinkwater, John F. (2007). The Alamanni and Rome 213–496. Caracalla to Clovis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929568-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wBJREAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wBJREAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:108"><p>Potter 2004, p. 505. - Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:109"><p>Hunt 1998, p. 57. - Hunt, David (1998). "The successors of Constantine + Julian". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5. <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:110"><p>Ammianus and Julian both portrayed Constantius's order as fueled by envy of the Caesar’s growing popularity, with the additional intent of weakening his military position, as he had previously done with Gallus.[101] Crawford was skeptical of such a portrayal, believing that Julian would’ve needed far less troops than Constantius if he was really as successful as he portrayed himself,[102] while Potter dismissed the idea, believing that the necessity of Constantius's act for his plan was sufficient explanation.[99] <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:111"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.11.6–25 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:112"><p>Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXI.7.7 & 13.1–5 <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:113"><p>Vagi 2001, p. 508. - Vagi, David L. (2001). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 978-1-57958-316-3. <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:114"><p>Vagi 2001, p. 508. - Vagi, David L. (2001). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 978-1-57958-316-3. <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:115"><p>Ammianus only recorded Constantius's legitimization of Julian as a rumor. While Hunt and Matthews treated the report with caution,[106][107] Kelly considered it to be true, observing that the act prevented civil war and protected his posthumous reputation, as well as his wife’s unborn child.[108] Errington and Crawford also accepted it as true, viewing it as a display of pragmatism and dynastic solidarity.[109][110] <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:116"><p>The manuscript of Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 21.15.2 reads tertium nonarum Octobrium, which is the equivalent of 5 October. The latest editor of the Res Gestae accepts Otto Seeck's emendation tertium nonarum Novembrium which is the equivalent of 3 November. T.D. Barnes (Classical Philology, 88 [1993], pp. 64f) provides indirect evidence showing 3 November is a better fit. <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:117"><p>Vasiliev, A. A. (1948). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 4: 1+3–26. doi:10.2307/1291047. JSTOR 1291047. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2019. <a href="https://lucazavagno.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/vasiliev.pdf" target="_blank">https://lucazavagno.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/vasiliev.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:118"><p>Banchich, Thomas M. "Gallus Caesar (15 March 351 – 354 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2018. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081210150345/http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20081210150345/http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:119"><p>Jones, Martindale & Morris, pp. 300–301. - Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uOHw4idqAeYC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uOHw4idqAeYC</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:120"><p>Marcellinus, Ammianus (1940). The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 2, Book 21, chapter 15. Translated by Rolfe, J. C. Harvard University Press. Retrieved 11 April 2011. <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:121"><p>Michael DiMaio Jr. and Robert Frakes, Constantius II (337–361 A.D.) Archived 8 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/constaii.htm" target="_blank">http://www.roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/constaii.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:122"><p>Jones 1964, p. 116. - Jones, A. H. M. The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey [Paperback, vol. 1] ISBN 0-8018-3353-1 Basil Blackwell Ltd. 1964. <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:123"><p>Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. Roman Coins (1978), p. 54 <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:124"><p>Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.15 <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>