Goma

<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2>
The name Goma derived from a modification of <a href="/facts/Ngoma_drums/cb1xrytB">ngoma</a>, the city's former designation, a term of profound cultural and linguistic relevance among <a href="/facts/Bantu_languages/6xKvpQ1a">Bantu</a>-speaking communities throughout <a href="/facts/Central_Africa/ufJ003ex">Central</a>, <a href="/facts/Southern_Africa/Ak6C1vgf">Southern</a>, and <a href="/facts/East_Africa/WtsAyphI">East Africa</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> Ngoma is translated as "<a href="/facts/Drum/YIPLomXA">drum</a>", and is commonly associated with ritual dances and ceremonies in these regions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> This etymological link is believed to allude to the resonant, drum-like sounds emitted during a volcanic eruption that altered the area's historical topography.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> The eruption led to the destruction of the original village, prompting its inhabitants to disperse and establish three new villages: Ngoma, which evolved into modern Goma; Matcha, contemporary <a href="/facts/Sake,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/N6e7tgG5">Sake</a>; and Munti, which is now known as <a href="/facts/Bukumu_Chiefdom/9PVM5dhs">Munigi groupement of Bukumu Chiefdom</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>
Residents of Goma are sometimes referred to as Gomatraciens, though this term is seldom used locally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> The suffix "-tracien" has scientific connotation classifications, often associated with the taxonomy of animal species, particularly <a href="/facts/Amphibian/r2BleD2W">amphibians</a>, which has led to its perception as artificial and unsuitable for describing human inhabitants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> Instead, the term Goméen is favored for its more humanistic and natural connotation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>

<h2 id="geography">Geography</h2>

Goma is the largest and <a href="/facts/Capital_city/p06rGdJC">capital city</a> of the <a href="/facts/North_Kivu/D27suJFx">North Kivu</a> Province in eastern <a href="/facts/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/E2KmHDdv">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>
To Goma's north lies <a href="/facts/Nyiragongo_Territory/rch9yQaf">Nyiragongo Territory</a>, the <a href="/facts/Republic_of_Rwanda/UKR5UdKy">Republic of Rwanda</a> to the east, Lake Kivu to the south, and <a href="/facts/Masisi_Territory/Kmu8KFxC">Masisi Territory</a> to the west.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Goma is strategically located on the Goma plain, which is composed of <a href="/facts/Volcano/c2M5upml">volcanic</a> <a href="/facts/Lava/q2an5SVN">lavas</a> and gradual <a href="/facts/Slope_stability/8eRhdoTL">slopes</a> gently towards <a href="/facts/Lake_Kivu/19NvAKG2">Lake Kivu</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> The plain is also bordered by the <a href="/facts/Virunga_Mountains/aXxwXJeE">Virunga Mountains</a> to the west, which comprises prominent peaks such as <a href="/facts/Nyamuragira/Lh13LcIB">Nyamuragira</a>, <a href="/facts/Mount_Nyiragongo/Y6eWMlkQ">Mount Nyiragongo</a>, <a href="/facts/Mount_Mikeno/bD64x0o7">Mount Mikeno</a>, <a href="/facts/Mount_Bisoke/AylYna5s">Mount Bisoke</a>, <a href="/facts/Mount_Gahinga/44ENmyT1">Mount Gahinga</a>, <a href="/facts/Mount_Karisimbi/YtkaLVBn">Mount Karisimbi</a> and <a href="/facts/Mount_Sabyinyo/41CSAHSx">Mount Sabyinyo</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> Elevations in the northern part of the plain range from 1,640 to 2,000 m (5,380 to 6,560 ft), with the volcanic fields of Nyamuragira and Nyiragongo exhibiting continuous <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">carbon dioxide</a> <a href="/facts/Degassing/KnVMSb8o">degassing</a>. Nyiragongo, in particular, has been active since the early 1900s, featuring an active <a href="/facts/Lava_lake/m0yp1PtX">lava lake</a> and periodic eruptions, including notable events in 1977, 2002, and 2021.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>
The predominant terrain of Goma is <a href="/facts/Volcano/c2M5upml">volcanic</a>, with only a small portion consisting of slightly <a href="/facts/Sand/MdTIt0M8">sandy</a> soil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> The surface is covered with <a href="/facts/Basalt/uhbwGPTb">basalt</a> flows, creating a <a href="/facts/Orthent/kvHqqzdY">skeletal soil</a> profile. Hills such as Mount Goma, Mount Ndosho, Mount Mugunga, and Mount Busara punctuate the landscape, although some areas are relatively flat.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> Mount Goma, an extinct volcano, lies at the public port of Goma. This hill was formed during ancient volcanic eruptions and marks the southeastern limit of the plain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>

The vegetation in Goma is predominantly <a href="/facts/Savanna/M0tPdd1l">savannah</a> interspersed with <a href="/facts/Shrub/X1gKVxL5">bushes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> The city's <a href="/facts/Aesthetics/FSD8f7oF">aesthetic</a> appeal is further enhanced by <a href="/facts/Artificial_plants/8Mbm0PIU">artificial greenery</a>, including trees planted by landowners, which mitigates temperature fluctuations. Hydrographically, Goma benefits from its southern proximity to Lake Kivu and smaller lakes such as Green Lake in Mugunga and Black Lake in Buhimba to the west.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>

<h3>Climate</h3>
<a href="/facts/K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger_climate_classification_system/VDcr86hF">Köppen-Geiger climate classification system</a> classifies Goma's climate as a <a href="/facts/Tropical_savanna_climate/Fv73uSRF">tropical savanna climate</a> (Aw).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> Goma is much milder than most climates of its latitude due to the city's high altitude, and sees warm days and pleasant nights year-round.

<table><tbody><tr><th colspan="14">Climate data for Goma</th></tr><tr><th scope="row">Month</th><th scope="col">Jan</th><th scope="col">Feb</th><th scope="col">Mar</th><th scope="col">Apr</th><th scope="col">May</th><th scope="col">Jun</th><th scope="col">Jul</th><th scope="col">Aug</th><th scope="col">Sep</th><th scope="col">Oct</th><th scope="col">Nov</th><th scope="col">Dec</th><th scope="col">Year</th></tr><tr><th scope="row">Mean daily maximum °C (°F)</th><td>25.6(78.1)</td><td>25.7(78.3)</td><td>25.7(78.3)</td><td>25.4(77.7)</td><td>25.3(77.5)</td><td>25.3(77.5)</td><td>25.2(77.4)</td><td>25.8(78.4)</td><td>25.9(78.6)</td><td>25.7(78.3)</td><td>25.3(77.5)</td><td>25.4(77.7)</td><td>25.5(77.9)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Daily mean °C (°F)</th><td>20.0(68.0)</td><td>20.1(68.2)</td><td>20.1(68.2)</td><td>20.0(68.0)</td><td>19.9(67.8)</td><td>19.4(66.9)</td><td>19.7(67.5)</td><td>19.8(67.6)</td><td>19.8(67.6)</td><td>19.9(67.8)</td><td>19.7(67.5)</td><td>19.9(67.8)</td><td>19.9(67.7)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Mean daily minimum °C (°F)</th><td>14.4(57.9)</td><td>14.6(58.3)</td><td>14.6(58.3)</td><td>14.7(58.5)</td><td>14.6(58.3)</td><td>13.6(56.5)</td><td>13.1(55.6)</td><td>13.9(57.0)</td><td>14.0(57.2)</td><td>14.2(57.6)</td><td>14.1(57.4)</td><td>14.4(57.9)</td><td>14.2(57.5)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Average rainfall mm (inches)</th><td>94(3.7)</td><td>84(3.3)</td><td>117(4.6)</td><td>119(4.7)</td><td>108(4.3)</td><td>55(2.2)</td><td>29(1.1)</td><td>70(2.8)</td><td>117(4.6)</td><td>143(5.6)</td><td>138(5.4)</td><td>118(4.6)</td><td>1,192(46.9)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Average rainy days</th><td>16</td><td>16</td><td>19</td><td>22</td><td>18</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>15</td><td>20</td><td>22</td><td>19</td><td>189</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Mean daily <a href="/facts/Sunshine_duration/wVBusklh">sunshine hours</a></th><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14">Source 1: Climate-Data.org, altitude: 1,531 metres or 5,023 feet<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="14">Source 2: Weather2Travel for rainy days and sunshine<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

<h3>Administrative division</h3>
Goma spreads over an approximate area of 75.72 km2 (29.24 sq mi) and has an estimated population of nearly 2 million people according to the 2022 census.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> In 1984, its population was estimated at 80,000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> The city is administratively divided into two urban municipalities: <a href="/facts/Goma_(commune)/qFcW5opU">Goma</a> and <a href="/facts/Karisimbi_(commune)/kspn6rpw">Karisimbi</a>, which are further subdivided into 18 <a href="/facts/Quarter_(urban_subdivision)/I0LbVxKm">quarters</a>, colloquially recognized as "<a href="/facts/Neighbourhood/UT2A3wrJ">neighborhoods</a>" in the English lexicon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> This division was officially institutionalized through Ordinance Law No. 48-127 on 22 May 1989, which formalized the city's <a href="/facts/Communes_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/67EuJKyg">communes</a> (municipalities) and quartiers (quarters).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> Each neighborhood is further subdivided into smaller administrative units, including avenues, cells, and a local governance model called Nyumba Kumi (ten houses).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> Introduced in 1997 by the <a href="/facts/AFDL/E2WyJcxV">Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo</a> (AFDL), the Nyumba Kumi system is akin to a similar administrative framework in Rwanda.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> The Nyumba Kumi structure is managed by appointed individuals under the authority of the neighborhood chief, who supervises ten households.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>
The administrative leadership is centralized under a <a href="/facts/Mayor/KN24kwhp">mayor</a>, who is assisted by a <a href="/facts/Deputy_mayor/CfJcotGC">deputy mayor</a>. The deputy mayor is responsible for overseeing the mayors of each commune, who, in turn, manage the neighborhood heads.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> While the communes and the city are decentralized entities with legal personality and administrative autonomy, the neighborhoods are categorized as administrative units without independent legal status or personality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>

<table><tbody><tr><th>Communes (municipalities)</th><th>Quartiers (districts)</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Goma_(commune)/qFcW5opU">Goma</a></td><td>Les Volcanoes, Mikeno, Mapendo, <a href="/facts/Katindo/UWXSKLQg">Katindo</a>, Himbi, Keshero, Lac Vert</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Karisimbi_(commune)/kspn6rpw">Karisimbi</a></td><td>Kahembe, Katoyi, Majengo, Mabanga-Nord, Mabanga-Sud, Kasika, Murara, Virunga, <a href="/facts/Ndosho/LDqTTWF6">Ndosho</a>, Mugunga, Bujovu</td></tr></tbody></table>
In response to concerns related to population density, administrative adjustments were made that resulted in the creation of new quartiers. For instance, Katoyi quartier was divided into Kasika and Katoyi quartiers, while Mabanga quartier was divided into Mabanga North and Mabanga South quartiers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> Parenthetically, the provincial authorities granted permission for the establishment of a new quartier, Bujovu, within the <a href="/facts/Karisimbi_(commune)/kspn6rpw">commune of Karisimbi</a>, comprising cells from the Majengo and Virunga quartiers, namely Byahi and Tyazo cells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a>

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
For a chronological guide, see <a href="/facts/Timeline_of_Goma/5AAdyHVw">Timeline of Goma</a>.
The village of Ngoma was a port for lake traffic and a crossroads for the overland trade routes between <a href="/facts/Central_Africa/ufJ003ex">Central Africa</a> and the <a href="/facts/Indian_Ocean/Kv0crwKG">Indian Ocean</a>. In 1894, the explorer <a href="/facts/Gustav_Adolf_von_G%C3%B6tzen/aBrpSD5C">Gustav Adolf von Götzen</a>, following the footsteps of an earlier missionary, was traveling to Rwanda from the eastern coast of Africa and passed through the village, which he recorded as Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> In 1906, officers of the <a href="/facts/Congo_Free_State/mCy6kzM6">Congo Free State</a> established Goma post opposite <a href="/facts/Gisenyi/WIGr6Gcw">Gisenyi</a> as a military outpost to oversee <a href="/facts/Maritime_transport/rB1EQAfm">maritime</a> activities on <a href="/facts/Lake_Kivu/19NvAKG2">Lake Kivu</a>, which later transformed into a civil status office.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> Around 1930, the Goma precinct accommodated camps for laborers of the Eastern Railway (CFE), initially sited along Lake Kivu's eastern shores.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> By the mid-20th century, Goma had become an essential hub, serving as the endpoint of the <a href="/facts/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Chemins_de_Fer_Vicinaux_du_Congo/rBVWDakW">Vici Congo</a> road network and a port for the <a href="/facts/Transshipment/XFsvJSsl">transshipment</a> of agricultural commodities and <a href="/facts/Building_material/Kk7GB0KY">building materials</a> to and from <a href="/facts/Bukavu/RIXk2vMM">Bukavu</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> In 1945, Goma burgeoned into a state post under <a href="/facts/Rutshuru_Territory/vYoYRmpG">Rutshuru Territory</a>'s jurisdiction, experiencing a rapid demographic upsurge with approximately 8,600 inhabitants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> Goma's prominence as a city grew steadily, earning it the status of an extra-customary center that year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> Educational infrastructure developed in tandem, with institutions such as the "École Royale" (now the Goma Institute or INSTIGO) and the École Primaire d'Application de l'institut de Goma (EPAIGO) catering to European settlers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> Meanwhile, the native population relied on the Saint André School, later renamed Keshero Primary School, for <a href="/facts/Primary_education/FnXkdxDW">primary education</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> 
The inception of urbanization in <a href="/facts/Belgian_Congo/KeenpcUJ">Belgian Congo</a> was formalized with the promulgation of a decree on 21 February 1949, which instituted entities responsible for evaluating and issuing building permits, overseeing demolitions, modifying land plots, and making changes to the urban landscape.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> In 1951, Goma was elevated to the territorial and capital level of North Kivu, reflecting its economic importance and the influx of settlers during the late 1940s and early 1950s. This period also witnessed movements advocating for administrative separation between Goma and Rutshuru, leading to the establishment of deliberative and executive bodies in Kirotshe and later in <a href="/facts/Sake,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/N6e7tgG5">Sake</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a>
The urban sprawl of Goma adhered to the archetypal colonial planning paradigm with the demarcation of separate neighborhoods for Europeans (cité Européenne) and indigenous Congolese (cité indigène).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> The latter was limited to contemporary Birere, a densely populated neighborhood abutting the Rwandan border. Meanwhile, the neighborhoods allocated for European settlers were concentrated within the contemporary city center (quartier les Volcans) and an enclave of the Himbi neighborhood, which persists as the most urbanized, affluent, and wealthy parts of the city.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>
On 25 December 1966, North Kivu regained its district status before becoming a region following the constitutional referendum of June 1967.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> By 10 July 1988, North Kivu attained its regional autonomy, promulgating its status as a sovereign entity within the <a href="/facts/Kivu/LQWEeAM8">tripartite division of the Kivu region</a> into provinces: <a href="/facts/North_Kivu/D27suJFx">North Kivu</a>, <a href="/facts/South_Kivu/M68QPU0k">South Kivu</a>, and <a href="/facts/Maniema/d2Lj3lwn">Maniema</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> A decree issued on 14 September 1988, outlined critical urban development guidelines, such as construction alignments, the delineation of housing plans and communication routes, and the segregation of sustainable residential districts from native-dominated huts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> This marked the onset of a segregationist urban paradigm, in which Congolese cities became characterized by a dichotomy between modern urban centers and native settlements, resulting in the coexistence of two disparate forms of urban development.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> As a result of Goma's burgeoning urbanization, the city was officially designated as the provincial capital of the newly established North Kivu Province under Ordinance Law No. 88-178, issued on 15 November 1988.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a>

<h3>1994 Hutu refugee crisis</h3>
The <a href="/facts/Rwandan_genocide/sWRxDx4q">1994 Rwandan genocide</a> was executed by the interim Rwandan government against the <a href="/facts/Tutsi/3TGso07v">Tutsi</a> population and <a href="/facts/Hutu/aFuxImu0">Hutu</a> moderates. In response, the <a href="/facts/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front/UxzsJeg3">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a> (RPF), formed by Tutsi refugees from Uganda, who already held control over significant portions of northern Rwanda after their invasion in 1990 and the ongoing <a href="/facts/Rwandan_Civil_War/9herxMN7">Civil War</a>, overthrew the Hutu government in <a href="/facts/Kigali/nrmQaxMX">Kigali</a>, forcing them out.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> Over two million Hutus fled the country to Zaire and many Tutsis and Hutus were internally displaced within Rwanda.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> Although Hutu extremists were responsible for the mass killing of Tutsis, scholars like Judi Rever and <a href="/facts/Filip_Reyntjens/wmwJb5lz">Filip Reyntjens</a> argue that the main perpetrators of the slaughter were the Tutsi-dominated RPF, led by <a href="/facts/Paul_Kagame/Sbzt7ckn">Paul Kagame</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> According to Judi Rever, Kagame personally commanded massacres at places like <a href="/facts/Byumba/jedm8T3S">Byumba</a> soccer stadium in northern Rwanda and ordered the pursuit of Hutus in the Zairean forests.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> They devised ways to dispose of large numbers of bodies by "dissolving them in acid, dumping them in rivers and swamps, or burning them, and established open air crematorium".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> Various UN missions attempted to establish safe zones and facilitate the movement of refugees. Between 13 June and 14 July 1994, an overwhelming number of refugees, ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 per day, fled across the border to Goma, resulting in a severe <a href="/facts/Humanitarian_crisis/Y09Sjn81">humanitarian crisis</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> as there was an acute lack of shelter, food and water. However, the Zairean government took it upon itself to garner attention for the situation. Shortly after the arrival of nearly one million <a href="/facts/Refugee/VISfRRnT">refugees</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> a deadly <a href="/facts/Cholera/rk8JfWEp">cholera</a> outbreak swept through the Hutu refugee camps near Goma, claiming thousands of lives. RPF-aligned forces, which had fought in the conflict, crossed the border to Zaire and in acts of revenge also claimed several lives

<h3>First Congo War</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/First_Congo_War/nvK5SfuB">First Congo War</a> and <a href="/facts/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War/fFL0cetg">Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War</a>
As early as mid-1996, infiltrated units from Rwanda began targeting <a href="/facts/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War/fFL0cetg">Hutu refugee camps</a> along the <a href="/facts/Rutshuru/F4uthXyl">Rutshuru</a> road, even before formal hostilities began. On the evening of 27 June 1996, an infiltrated group allegedly carried out an attack on the Kibumba refugee camp, resulting in casualties among Hutu refugees, soldiers from the Contingent Zaïrois pour la sécurité des camps (CZSC), and <a href="/facts/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement/KcT9EGnA">Red Cross</a> personnel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a>
During the <a href="/facts/First_Congo_War/nvK5SfuB">First Congo War</a>, from mid-October 1996, Rwandan infiltrations intensified, accompanied by sporadic attacks on refugee camps along the Goma to Rutshuru road by the newly formed <a href="/facts/AFDL/E2WyJcxV">Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo</a> (AFDL), a rebel movement led by <a href="/facts/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila/yjJhcMLT">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a>, and <a href="/facts/Rwanda_Defence_Force/Es2SsJvj">Rwandan Patriotic Army</a> (RPA) led by <a href="/facts/Paul_Kagame/Sbzt7ckn">Paul Kagame</a>, who aimed to overthrow <a href="/facts/Mobutu_Sese_Seko/Qq9pprJa">Mobutu Sese Seko</a>'s regime, accusing him of excluding Tutsis from governance and failing to stop the <a href="/facts/G%C3%A9nocidaires/Y9wTjoc0">génocidaires</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> However, the <a href="/facts/United_Nations_Security_Council/ytwaz2e4">United Nations Security Council</a> noted that both the RPA and AFDL pillaged Zaire's minerals for nearly two and a half decades and conducted massacres throughout the conflict.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> The Kibumba camp, situated twenty-five kilometers north of Goma, was the first to fall under assault. On the night of 25–26 October 1996, AFDL and RPA soldiers bombarded the Kibumba camp, resulting in casualties among Hutu refugees and the destruction of the camp's hospital. Subsequently, approximately 194,000 refugees fled Kibumba towards the Mugunga camp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> The Katale camp also faced attacks on the same night, but <a href="/facts/Forces_Arm%C3%A9es_Za%C3%AFroises/L0djRB38">Forces Armées Zaïroises</a> (FAZ)/CZSC soldiers and ex-FAR/<a href="/facts/Interahamwe/snaLHnSu">Interahamwe</a> units repelled the assailants initially.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> However, on 26 October 1996, AFDL and RPA forces attacked the Katale camp, resulting in numerous Hutu refugee casualties and the death of a Zairian soldier. They also allegedly killed several Hutu refugees using <a href="/facts/Edged_and_bladed_weapons/y9SpkWLo">bladed weapons</a>. Following confrontations with FAZ soldiers and ex-FAR/Interahamwe units from the Katale camp, who offered reinforcement, AFDL and RPA forces seized control of the FAZ military camp at <a href="/facts/Rumangabo/RAC4o542">Rumangabo</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a>
By 30 October, refugees from Katale and <a href="/facts/Katindo/UWXSKLQg">Kahindo</a> camps began to depart, with some heading towards <a href="/facts/Masisi/N4dXrcBs">Masisi</a> via Tongo groupement of <a href="/facts/Bwito_Chiefdom/Doxwg8BS">Bwito Chiefdom</a>, while others attempted to reach the Mugunga camp through the <a href="/facts/Virunga_National_Park/ds78mXsu">Virunga National Park</a>. However, AFDL and RPA troops had blocked the road to Goma, complicating the refugees' escape routes. On 31 October 1996, AFDL and RPA soldiers allegedly massacred hundreds of Hutu refugees who remained in the Kahindo and Katale camps.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> Roberto Garretón, the <a href="/facts/United_Nations_special_rapporteur/Gz5zhe43">Special Rapporteur</a> on the violation of human rights in Zaire, estimated the casualties and highlighted the brutality inflicted on the refugees.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a>
In the aftermath of AFDL/RPA offensives in North Kivu, some refugees opted to return to Rwanda, though their numbers remained small. UNHCR reported approximately 900 Hutu refugees returning to Rwanda between 26 October and 31 October 1996. The reluctance of many refugees to return stemmed from both physical and psychological pressures, including fear of reprisals from AFDL/RPA soldiers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> There were reports of AFDL/RPA soldiers killing refugees who expressed a desire to return to Rwanda.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> Determining the exact number of refugees killed by AFDL/RPA soldiers in attacks along the Goma to Rutshuru road was challenging. However, local NGOs involved in burial operations provided insights into the scale of the atrocities. The <a href="/facts/DRC_Mapping_Exercise_Report/0Iq647lr">United Nations Mapping Report</a> team documented numerous alleged incidents, including mass burials and killings in and around refugee camps between November 1996 and April 1997.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> The violence extended beyond the dismantling of refugee camps; Hutu survivors faced persecution while attempting to flee. In November 1996, AFDL/RPA soldiers reportedly targeted Hutu survivors from Kahindo and Katale camps, executing adult males.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> These survivors, along with others who resettled in makeshift camps, were subjected to further attacks in the Virunga National Park, resulting in additional casualties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> The atrocities persisted for several months, with killings reported well into 1997. Witness testimonies highlighted the grim reality faced by refugees, with bodies discovered daily in former camp sites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a> On 11 April 1997, AFDL/RPA soldiers allegedly massacred hundreds of refugees near Kibumba village. These refugees, intercepted while attempting to return to Rwanda, were detained and subsequently killed by AFDL/RPA forces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a>
By the end of 1997, AFDL rebels advanced to <a href="/facts/Kinshasa/REHVNkdc">Kinshasa</a>, driving out Mobutu and leading to Laurent-Désiré Kabila proclaiming himself president on 17 May, renaming the country the <a href="/facts/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/E2KmHDdv">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> (DRC).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a>

<h3>Second Congo War</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Second_Congo_War/sf5qnF8a">Second Congo War</a>
Within a year of assuming power, <a href="/facts/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila/yjJhcMLT">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a> found himself in conflict with his former allies, and in 1998, the Rwandan government threw its support behind a Goma-based rebel movement known as the <a href="/facts/Rally_for_Congolese_Democracy/6UvFtflL">Congolese Rally for Democracy</a> (RCD), occasionally denoted as <a href="/facts/Rally_for_Congolese_Democracy%E2%80%93Goma/BEecKq3z">RCD-Goma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> The Goma refugee encampments, where Hutu refugees and Interahamwe militants had forged a militia known as the <a href="/facts/Democratic_Forces_for_the_Liberation_of_Rwanda/2F15Lhw9">Democratic Force for the Liberation of Rwanda</a> (FDLR), morphed into battlegrounds as Rwandan government forces and the RCD clashed with them to assert dominion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a>
On 2 August 1998, General Sylvain Buki announced via <a href="/facts/Radio-T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_nationale_congolaise/PyAuMA2s">Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise</a> (RTNC) in Goma that a rebellion had erupted within the <a href="/facts/Air_Force_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/LN9e4ord">Congolese Armed Forces</a> (FAC).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> The 10th Brigade of the FAC mutinied, leading to the swift capture of Goma by the RCD and Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), with minimal resistance. Goma remained beyond the reach of the Kinshasa government's forces for nearly three years, save for <a href="/facts/Barrage_(artillery)/NyXeryVW">sporadic barrage</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a> Amidst these conflicts, the RCD's bias towards the local Tutsi community, Rwandan interference in provincial affairs, and the brutality of RCD and RPA troops towards civilians in North Kivu prompted many locals to join <a href="/facts/Mai-Mai/lkoWYwXH">Mayi–Mayi</a> armed groups to defend their communities. The Mayi–Mayi militias utilized forested areas and national parks as bases for launching attacks against RCD and RPA forces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a>
With support from Kinshasa, the Mayi–Mayi and <a href="/facts/Army_for_the_Liberation_of_Rwanda/ICjD3HuC">ALiR</a> intensified ambushes and pillaging against RCD/RPA soldiers and civilian populations. Consequently, RCD/RPA control was limited to certain urban areas. In response, they increased search operations in various regions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> The <a href="/facts/Second_Congo_War/sf5qnF8a">Second Congo War</a> was unprecedented in Africa for the loss of civilian life in massacres and atrocities. By 2003, the Rwandan <a href="/facts/Banyamulenge/hL4eIoxg">Banyamulenge</a>-supported insurgent factions wearied of the conflict, and discord surfaced between them and Rwanda. In 2002 and 2003, a tenuous <a href="/facts/Pretoria_Accord/p7dAJbPA">negotiated peace</a> ensued among the myriad factions embroiled in the conflict.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a>

<h3>Ongoing conflict</h3>

Since the conclusion of the Second Congo War, Goma has been plagued by conflict despite the peace agreements of 2002. In 2006, it became a focal point for the <a href="/facts/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/L0djRB38">Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>'s 81st and 83rd Brigades, who remained faithful to Congolese Tutsi military defector <a href="/facts/Laurent_Nkunda/1oACnXCm">Laurent Nkunda</a>, who accused the government of neglecting to assimilate his military faction into the national army and failing to safeguard their interests.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> Numerous heinous crimes were committed by Nkunda during his reign of terror. In 2002, he sanctioned the massacre of over 150 people in <a href="/facts/Kisangani/JtSXgoVe">Kisangani</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> In <a href="/facts/Bukavu/RIXk2vMM">Bukavu</a> in 2004, his insurgent affiliates, in conjunction with Colonel <a href="/facts/Jules_Mutebutsi/aqVDXxlm">Jules Mutebutsi</a>, executed widespread atrocities, including sexual violence and arbitrary detentions, predominantly targeting young girls.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> <a href="/facts/Human_Rights_Watch/X265jj8r">Human Rights Watch</a> clamored for Nkunda's arrest in February 2006,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> but it wasn't until June of that year that his military faction made significant territorial gains, capturing localities like <a href="/facts/Bunagana,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/412IrSCa">Bunagana</a>, located 80 km from Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a>

Despite intermittent losses and counteroffensives by FARDC's 9th Integrated Brigade,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a> Nkunda's forces maintained control over certain areas like Bunagana and Runyoni. By November 2006, reports cited three fatalities and 41 injuries, among them civilians,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a> and by December, the violence had displaced over 80,000 people, many of whom sought refuge on the outskirts of Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a> The conflict escalated further in early 2007, with Goma's healthcare organization, Groupe d'Entraide et de Solidarité Médicale (GESOM), treating an average of three rape survivors daily from both urban and rural sectors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a> On 17 May, FARDC arrested 14 Rwandan nationals, including members of Nkunda's brigade, as <a href="/facts/MONUSCO/kmmnLa9F">MONUSCO</a> noted that his militia in North Kivu was wearing distinctive Rwandan military uniforms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> Later in May, the French Ambassador to the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bernard Prévost, visited the Mugunga displacement camp near <a href="/facts/Sake,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/N6e7tgG5">Sake</a> and announced that <a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a> would allocate over <a href="/facts/Euro_sign/boK32Hs4">€</a>2.6 million to the <a href="/facts/World_Food_Programme/yBwCJgza">World Food Programme</a> to support displaced persons in the eastern DRC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a> In June 2007, <a href="/facts/William_L._Swing/Enra3SYV">William Lacy Swing</a>, Director General of the <a href="/facts/International_Organization_for_Migration/9WGdNj7b">International Organization for Migration</a>, expressed profound concern about the escalating conflict, citing rising insecurity, ethnic discord, the swelling numbers of internally displaced persons, and an increase in human rights abuses in North Kivu.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> Toward the end of June, Rwandan combatants launched a deadly assault on Lake Kivu, resulting in the deaths of four people, including three fishermen and a <a href="/facts/Navy_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/ctuGKloz">Congolese naval</a> officer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> The attackers also looted valuable fishing equipment and an <a href="/facts/Outboard_motor/4TjsuNRN">outboard motor</a>. Initial negotiations with Rwandan officials regarding cross-border security on Lake Kivu ultimately facilitated the partial recovery of the stolen fishing assets in Rwanda.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a>

On 6 September, MONUSCO brokered a ceasefire between the FARDC and forces loyal to Laurent Nkunda.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> However, the following day saw renewed clashes, with most of the population from Goma's surrounding regions seeking shelter in the Mugunga, Lac-Vert, and Ndosho neighborhoods, as well as Goma Centre, fearing further confrontations between the FARDC and Nkunda's forces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a> Fighting between Nkunda's forces and the <a href="/facts/Mai-Mai/lkoWYwXH">Mai-Mai</a> community-based militia, Congolese Patriotic Resistance (PARECO), which claimed to protect its community from Nkunda's forces, led to the deaths of 5 people in Bitonga in southern Masisi Territory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a> Nine deceased people were subsequently uncovered in three separate <a href="/facts/Mass_grave/tyI0dIpY">mass graves</a> within Rubare, approximately 12 km from <a href="/facts/Rutshuru/F4uthXyl">Rutshuru</a>, north of Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a> Two other bodies were discovered in the administrative support post of Kisharo's office, around 20 kilometers from Kiwanja, along the route to Nyamilima and Shasha, within Rutshuru Territory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> On 27 October 2008, the <a href="/facts/2008_Nord-Kivu_campaign/4tapEdnK">Battle of Goma</a> broke out in the city between the Congolese army, supported by MONUSCO, and Nkunda's <a href="/facts/National_Congress_for_the_Defence_of_the_People/GJplUfVD">CNDP</a> rebels; 200,000 refugees fled the town.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a>
On 3 November 2012 there was a <a href="/facts/2012_Congolese%E2%80%93Rwandan_border_clash/VNyl4WrB">clash between Congolese and Rwandan troops</a> on the border just north of Goma. Goma was later seized by the <a href="/facts/M23_rebellion_(2012%E2%80%932013)/l4XJII9Q">M23 Movement</a> on 20 November 2012.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a> During the M23's brief rule, the city endured ten days of chaos, marked by looting and executions, bringing economic activities to a standstill and forcing residents into seclusion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a>
On 22 February 2021, the <a href="/facts/List_of_ambassadors_of_Italy_to_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/wRLYsrlN">Italian ambassador</a>, <a href="/facts/Luca_Attanasio/KHj6wn67">Luca Attanasio</a>, was killed in an apparent kidnapping attempt near <a href="/facts/Virunga_National_Park/ds78mXsu">Virunga National Park</a>. He was part of the U.N.'s <a href="/facts/World_Food_Programme/yBwCJgza">World Food Programme</a> (WFP). Two others were also killed.
As of March 2022, the clashes between the FARDC, the M23, and various armed groups in North Kivu have displaced over one million people. Among them, more than 600,000 have fled to overcrowded and unsanitary camps on the fringes of Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a> <a href="/facts/Gender-related_violence/b5ClNHst">Gender-based violence</a> has also soared in the region, resulting in the prevalence of a pervasive culture of impunity. Between 17–30 April 2023, <a href="/facts/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res/aWHStTIt">Médecins Sans Frontières</a> (MSF) teams treated 674 victims of sexual violence in camps like Bulengo, Lushagala, and Rusayo, with 360 cases reported solely from the latter, a recently established and densely inhabited settlement situated to the west of Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a> The vast majority of these victims were attacked while venturing outside the displaced sites in search of basic necessities like <a href="/facts/Firewood/1ohqWUEH">firewood</a> and <a href="/facts/Sustenance/QlV0Kf8w">sustenance</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a>
The M23's offensive in early February 2024 around <a href="/facts/Sake,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/N6e7tgG5">Sake</a>, roughly twenty kilometers from Goma, exposed civilians to heavy fighting and forced more displacement towards Goma and previously settled sites or with host families on the Sake-<a href="/facts/Bweremana/oplBGYXH">Bweremana</a> axis towards the province from <a href="/facts/South_Kivu/M68QPU0k">South Kivu</a> in the <a href="/facts/Kalehe_Territory/CbmmukPY">Kalehe Territory</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> This influx of displaced people strains already limited resources and infrastructure, making it increasingly challenging to meet the needs of affected communities. Some regional initiatives have addressed the crisis, with the deployment of <a href="/facts/Southern_African_Development_Community/xKfEt3Hb">Southern African Development Community</a> (SADC) forces and summits between heads of state to relaunch the <a href="/facts/Peace_process/YhxuwEkV">peace process</a> and secure a <a href="/facts/Ceasefire/ARkueD6m">ceasefire</a> in the region.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a>
On 12 February, South Africa announced it would send 2,900 troops as part of its contribution to the SADC force deployed to tackle armed groups in the eastern DRC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> On 15 February, two South African soldiers were killed and three wounded by a <a href="/facts/Mortar_(weapon)/2vs8xEBx">mortar bomb</a> launched by M23 rebels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a> The road to lasting peace remains fraught with challenges, including the need for direct dialogue between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a>
As of January 2025, the city is once again the target <a href="/facts/2025_Goma_offensive/0JbAkvpU">of a renewed M23 offensive</a>, which resulted in multiple casualties, injuries, looting, destruction of property, and mass displacement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> Nearly 3,000 people were killed in the fighting in Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> On 27 January 2025, more than 4,000 prisoners escaped from Muzenze prison.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> It was reported that hundreds of female inmates were raped and burned alive during the mass jailbreak from Goma's prison.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a>

<h3>Sexual violence</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Sexual_violence_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/eX8z7XsS">Sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>

Goma has been heavily affected by <a href="/facts/Sexual_violence/vkGvfq5m">sexual violence</a>, which is deeply intertwined with the ongoing regional conflicts, economic instability, and social challenges that have marked the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo for decades.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a> Armed groups, local militias, and, at times, even some members of state forces have been implicated in sexual violence against civilians.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a> Such violations are often weaponized as a deliberate tool of war to terrorize communities, assert control, and break down social cohesion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a> Survivors often face physical <a href="/facts/Injury/PJ7CbnMQ">injuries</a>, <a href="/facts/Sexually_transmitted_infection/IYL1rxdI">sexually transmitted infections</a>, <a href="/facts/Psychological_trauma/7UMnzzBy">psychological trauma</a>, and <a href="/facts/Social_stigma/HXG8pDsF">social stigma</a>. A study from 2007 revealed that around 1.69–1.80 million women aged 15–29 in the DRC reported experiencing <a href="/facts/Sexual_assault/F3zvb27R">sexual assault</a> at some point in their lives, with North Kivu recording 223,262 cases, the highest rate nationally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a> Further research in 2010 indicated that 39.7% of women in North and South Kivu had experienced sexual violence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a> In 2023, <a href="/facts/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res/aWHStTIt">Médecins Sans Frontières</a> (MSF) reported a sharp increase in sexual violence cases in the DRC, mainly concentrated in and around Goma. MSF treated 25,166 survivors nationwide, averaging more than two patients per hour.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a> In the first five months of 2024 alone, MSF treated 17,363 survivors in North Kivu, representing 69% of the total cases treated across five provinces in the previous year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a>

<h4>Medical literature, demographics, and medical treatment</h4>

Despite substantial media coverage, sexual violence within the DRC remains insufficiently addressed in <a href="/facts/Medical_literature/C01NYutX">medical literature</a>. A study conducted in Goma from 2013 to 2017 revealed that sexual violence disproportionately affected females below 18 years, with an average age of 16.5 years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a> Half of the perpetrators were known to the survivors; 12% of survivors tested positive for pregnancy, and 43% received <a href="/facts/Emergency_contraception/EHJf4SqN">emergency contraception</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a>
In a separate study covering January 2019 to December 2020, <a href="/facts/Karisimbi_(commune)/kspn6rpw">Karisimbi</a> municipality in Goma reported 551 cases of sexual violence, while the <a href="/facts/Goma_(commune)/qFcW5opU">Goma</a> municipality recorded 149 cases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a> The Majengo neighborhood in Karisimbi reported the highest frequency, with 129 cases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a> Among the survivors, women aged 20–29 represented 28.6%, with only 15.7% reporting incidents occurring within their homes, and 60.7% of incidents involved the use of weapons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> <a href="/facts/Vaginal_trauma/FtsL8X1j">Vaginal assault</a> occurred in all cases, and other forms of assault, like touching, occurred in 7.2% of cases. Strangers constituted 64.7% of the perpetrators, and 61.4% of assailants were identified as members of military or police forces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a> Among survivors, 8.1% had a <a href="/facts/Physical_disability/Ae0waPgr">physical disability</a>. Of the 700 survivors, only 16.1% sought <a href="/facts/Doctor%27s_visit/nnKeepNh">medical consultation</a> for <a href="/facts/Genital_trauma/35UVw6AF">genital injuries</a>, and 0.7% presented with <a href="/facts/Muteness/yxyMycIL">mutism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> Approximately 60.6% sought <a href="/facts/Health_care/LPS1WKbI">medical care</a> within 72 hours, with 8.1% testing positive for <a href="/facts/HIV/ulY2rgzu">HIV</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a> Of the survivors, 76.3% underwent <a href="/facts/Pregnancy_test/fcM4u3Dg">pregnancy tests</a>, 6.4% of which were positive. Additionally, 55.4% of survivors received <a href="/facts/Birth_control/qCzhxgH8">contraception</a>, and 91.1% were offered <a href="/facts/Post-exposure_prophylaxis/H7pxk084">post-exposure prophylactic</a> treatment for HIV.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a>

<h3>Internally displaced populations</h3>

For over three decades, Goma has served as a major site for <a href="/facts/Internally_displaced_person/tHMBlw2Y">internally displaced persons</a> (IDPs), predominantly due to the recurrent waves of violence and humanitarian emergencies besieging the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and adjacent regions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a> The displacement crisis commenced in the aftermath of the 1994 <a href="/facts/Rwandan_genocide/sWRxDx4q">Rwandan genocide</a>, during which approximately 1.2 million refugees,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a> predominantly Hutus, entered eastern Congo, with between 500,000 and 850,000 people arriving in Goma over a span of five days in mid-July 1994.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a> This mass migration was one of the largest cross-border movements in recent history, with many refugees establishing makeshift camps around Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a>
The late 1990s witnessed a surge in the IDP crisis amidst the First and Second Congo Wars, with hundreds of thousands fleeing escalating rural violence and relocating to Goma and its environs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a> By December 2006, estimates suggested at least 80,000 IDPs resided within and around the city,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a> a figure that escalated to roughly 640,000 by September 2007 in camps dispersed across North Kivu.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a> Another spike in displacement transpired between 2012 and 2013, correlating with the emergence of M23. During this period, more than 500,000 people sought refuge in Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a> From 2020 to 2022, intensifying conflicts in North Kivu led to the displacement of approximately 1.5 million people throughout the province, with a significant contingent finding asylum in Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a>
As of 13 February 2024, Goma hosts an estimated 1.7 million IDPs due to renewed conflicts between the Congolese military and various insurgent groups,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a> including M23, with over 700,000 new arrivals recorded in late 2022 and early 2023 alone.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a>

<h4>Cholera, dysentery outbreaks, and malnutrition</h4>

The initial influx of refugees in July 1994 saw an immediate health emergency, as overcrowded camps lacked <a href="/facts/Water_pollution/SCUhUYqB">clean water</a>, <a href="/facts/Sanitation/NLGqBs2T">sanitation</a>, and hygiene facilities. The first case of cholera was diagnosed on 20 July 1994, leading to a major outbreak within the camps that saw an estimated 58,000 to 80,000 cases in less than a month.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a> Concurrently, an outbreak of bloody <a href="/facts/Diarrhea/6TBHaRdA">diarrhea</a> caused by <a href="/facts/Shigella_dysenteriae/vMm6xzzo">Shigella dysenteriae</a> type 1 emerged in early August, persisting in the camps until November. These outbreaks contributed to unprecedented mortality rates during the first month of the emergency, with an estimated 50,000 deaths recorded between mid-July and mid-August.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a>
The influx also led to severe <a href="/facts/Food_security/cKrQd4E9">food insecurity</a> among IDPs, resulting in widespread malnutrition, particularly affecting children. Goma's already fragile health infrastructure struggled to meet these needs, as ongoing conflict limited resources and disrupted supply chains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a> Many displaced families lacked access to sufficient food, and local health services were ill-equipped to address the scale of malnutrition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a>
Between January 2000 and December 2007, cholera remained a persistent threat in North and South Kivu, with 73,605 reported cases and 1,612 deaths, resulting in a <a href="/facts/Lethality/03bCAHTD">lethality</a> rate of 2.2%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a> In North Kivu, the cholera strains identified included <a href="/facts/Vibrio_cholerae/DbjgMz9Y">Vibrio cholerae</a> O1 El Tor Ogawa and Inaba, with the latter being exclusive to South Kivu.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a> Annual cholera outbreaks peaked at over 700 cases per week, particularly affecting health districts bordering lakes. Despite the severity of these outbreaks, between January and April 2002, only 140 cholera cases were reported across Goma, with no fatalities—a significant deviation from the city's typical average of 29 cases weekly for that period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a>

<h4>Mental health and nutritional challenges</h4>

In 2012, nearly 1 million children in the Democratic Republic of the Congo were estimated to suffer from acute malnutrition, with North Kivu, where Goma is located, being particularly affected.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a> Food shortages further hindered access to adequate nutrition for IDPs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a> Continuous exposure to violence and trauma led to pervasive <a href="/facts/Mental_health/QIszfk6D">mental health</a> issues, including <a href="/facts/Anxiety/Geekl883">anxiety</a>, <a href="/facts/Depression_(mood)/GDNFWm1L">depression</a>, and <a href="/facts/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder/9etKu7bX">post-traumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD), with limited mental health support available in the region.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189">189</a>

<h4>Recent health crises</h4>
From 2016 to 2022, recurring conflicts and subsequent displacements in Goma exacerbated the health crisis, with recurrent outbreaks of communicable diseases such as cholera, measles, and a resurgence of malaria.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190">190</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191">191</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192">192</a> Overcrowded and unsanitary conditions within IDP camps facilitated the spread of these diseases, resulting in high morbidity and mortality rates. The <a href="/facts/COVID-19_pandemic/0xTsh7Ut">COVID-19 pandemic</a> further intensified health challenges for IDPs, as healthcare systems became severely strained, limiting access to treatment and vaccination. IDPs were particularly vulnerable to severe COVID-19 outcomes due to overcrowded conditions and insufficient health resources.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193">193</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194">194</a>

<h3>Ebola epidemic and COVID-19 pandemic</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Kivu_Ebola_epidemic/bgYK35CK">Kivu Ebola epidemic</a> and <a href="/facts/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/E87eWKoU">COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<h4>Kivu Ebola epidemic</h4>
A <a href="/facts/Pastor/7MptxPeo">pastor</a> infected during the <a href="/facts/Kivu_Ebola_epidemic/bgYK35CK">2018–2020 Kivu Ebola epidemic</a> in the region was found in mid-July 2019 to have travelled to Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195">195</a> In August 2019, Rwandan Health Minister <a href="/facts/Diane_Gashumba/6aUpQyr5">Diane Gashumba</a> announced that students in Rwanda would cease attending school in Goma due to the Ebola outbreak, which has claimed the lives of over 1,800 people within the past year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196">196</a>

<h4>COVID-19 pandemic</h4>

The Democratic Republic of the Congo confirmed its first case of <a href="/facts/COVID-19/YsUgvsaX">COVID-19</a> on 10 March 2020.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197">197</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198">198</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199">199</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200">200</a> Following this, the virus spread throughout the country, resulting in a cumulative total of over 56,086 cases and 1,068 deaths (1.9% <a href="/facts/Lethality/03bCAHTD">lethality</a>) as of 5 September 2021.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201">201</a> Kinshasa reported the highest number of cases, followed by North Kivu, which constituted 10.4% (5,841 cases) of the national aggregate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202">202</a> Within Goma, the virus predominantly disseminated via community-based transmission.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203">203</a>
In response, the DRC instituted stringent containment protocols to attenuate the ramifications of COVID-19, in alignment with the directives of the <a href="/facts/World_Health_Organization/YNN3bgug">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) and the national <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_Public_Health_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)/IKh8Bq4w">Ministry of Public Health</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204">204</a> These regulations encompassed the closure of educational institutions, places of worship, markets, and various public venues, coupled with prohibitions on large congregations, resulting in the cancellation of Goma's annual <a href="/facts/Festival_Amani/vVBrde4Y">Amani Festival</a> in 2021.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205">205</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206">206</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207">207</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208">208</a> Despite these measures, Goma's economy confronted considerable adversities, with the city encountering a pronounced inflation rate of 16.4% in 2020, juxtaposed with 4.6% in the preceding year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209">209</a> This inflationary pressure undermined household incomes and diminished overall quality of life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210">210</a> However, by July 2024, the DRC achieved a significant milestone, reporting no new COVID-19 cases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211">211</a>

<h2 id="volcanic-activity">Volcanic activity</h2>
Due to the <a href="/facts/Great_Rift_Valley/9RT9pneS">Great Rift Valley</a> being pulled apart, the area experiences frequent <a href="/facts/Earthquake/NGjIzagw">earthquakes</a> and the formation of new <a href="/facts/Volcano/c2M5upml">volcanoes</a>. Over time, volcanic eruptions have directly impacted Goma, with significant <a href="/facts/Lava/q2an5SVN">lava</a> flows destroying nearby villages, neighborhoods, and roads north of the city.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212">212</a> The 1923 and 1997 eruptions caused significant damage and loss of life, with lava flows encroaching upon <a href="/facts/Lake_Kivu/19NvAKG2">Lake Kivu</a>'s shores and destroying sections of the city.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:213" href="#fn:213">213</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:214" href="#fn:214">214</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:215" href="#fn:215">215</a>

<h3>2002 Nyiragongo volcano eruption</h3>

In January 2002, <a href="/facts/Nyiragongo/Y6eWMlkQ">Nyiragongo</a> erupted, sending a stream of <a href="/facts/Lava/q2an5SVN">lava</a> 200 metres (219 yd) to one kilometre (1,100 yards) wide and up to two metres (6½ ft) deep through the center of the city as far as the lake shore. Agencies monitoring the volcano were able to give a warning and most of the population of Goma evacuated to Gisenyi. The lava destroyed 40% of the city (more than 4,500 houses and buildings). There were some fatalities caused by the lava and by emissions of <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">carbon dioxide</a>, which causes <a href="/facts/Asphyxiation/bahl3DJf">asphyxiation</a>. The lava also covered over the northern 1 km of the 3-kilometre (9,800 ft) <a href="/facts/Runway/EYy72SPJ">runway</a> of <a href="/facts/Goma_International_Airport/XL9bmTNn">Goma International Airport</a>, isolating the terminal and apron which were at that end.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:216" href="#fn:216">216</a> The lava can easily be seen in satellite photographs,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:217" href="#fn:217">217</a> and aircraft can be seen using the 2-km (6,500-ft) southern section of the runway which is clear of lava.
In March 2004, emissions from Nyiragongo volcano polluted the surrounding areas of North Kivu, including Rusayo, Bishusha, Birambizo, Tongo, <a href="/facts/Kitchanga/KvVp0rhl">Kitshanga</a>, and <a href="/facts/Sake,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/N6e7tgG5">Sake</a> with <a href="/facts/Water_vapor/DX5IUFG0">water vapor</a> (H2O) laden with <a href="/facts/Fluorine/YUV0Fb8m">fluorine</a> and <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">carbon dioxide</a> (CO2).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:218" href="#fn:218">218</a>

<h3>2021 Nyiragongo volcano eruption</h3>
Further information: <a href="/facts/2021_Mount_Nyiragongo_eruption/ft4Iqqlh">2021 Mount Nyiragongo eruption</a>

On 22 May 2021, Mount Nyiragongo erupted with lava flows closing a road and reaching the <a href="/facts/Goma_International_Airport/XL9bmTNn">municipal airport</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:219" href="#fn:219">219</a> The Buhene neighborhood, located on the edge of Goma, was engulfed in <a href="/facts/Flame/UMNDVEe8">flames</a>, and more than 500 homes were covered in cooling <a href="/facts/Lava/q2an5SVN">lava</a>. Parts of Virunga Energies's electricity facilities, which supplied electricity to nearly 15,000 homes in the city, were destroyed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:220" href="#fn:220">220</a> Thousands of people fled to nearby regions, with some boarding boats on <a href="/facts/Lake_Kivu/19NvAKG2">Lake Kivu</a>, which lies on the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda. Around 5,000 people crossed the border into Rwanda, while another 25,000 went northwest towards <a href="/facts/Sake,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/N6e7tgG5">Sake</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:221" href="#fn:221">221</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:222" href="#fn:222">222</a> The lava stopped flowing around 3 a.m. on 30 May 2021, and the Congolese government ordered the city's evacuation plan to be set in motion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:223" href="#fn:223">223</a> On the same day, residents returned to Goma to check on their homes. However, the <a href="/facts/UNICEF/otY1rTdl">United Nations Children's Fund</a> reported that more than 170 children were still missing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:224" href="#fn:224">224</a> The official report on the number of deaths is yet to be released, but the Minister of Communication and Media, <a href="/facts/Patrick_Muyaya_Katembwe/k4Q0zTjm">Patrick Muyaya Katembwe</a>, said at least 15 people died. Nine people died in a <a href="/facts/Traffic_collision/hW5yXKq3">traffic collision</a>, four died while trying to escape from the central prison of Munzenze, and two were calcined by lava.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:225" href="#fn:225">225</a>

<h3>2023 Nyamulagira volcano eruption</h3>
On 9 May 2023, lava flows were seen inside the central <a href="/facts/Crater/lJ2esF2t">crater</a> of <a href="/facts/Nyamuragira/Lh13LcIB">Nyamulagira volcano</a>. By 17 May, a large glow above the volcano was visible, leading to lava flows in <a href="/facts/Virunga_National_Park/ds78mXsu">Virunga National Park</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:226" href="#fn:226">226</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:227" href="#fn:227">227</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:228" href="#fn:228">228</a> While the lava flows do not harm the population, the volcano emits large amounts of gas and fine particles. <a href="/facts/Thermal_radiation/1PD9jtCv">Thermal radiation</a> over the crater increased sharply on 19 May, indicating an increase in the outpouring of lava, but the activity was still confined to the summit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:229" href="#fn:229">229</a> <a href="/facts/Effusive_eruption/QYrWltMX">Effusive eruption</a> increased further on 20 May, forming two large lobes — one outside the <a href="/facts/Caldera/eWvTK8Es">caldera</a> to the west and another to the south. Although not visible, <a href="/facts/Satellite_imagery/V8LQh7jI">satellite images</a> on May 19 and 20 showed that the current eruption at the volcano was emitting enormous amounts of <a href="/facts/Sulfur_dioxide/jDK1fIDs">sulfur dioxide</a> (SO2).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:230" href="#fn:230">230</a>

<h3>Threat posed by Lake Kivu</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Limnic_eruption/yUdl0ec3">Limnic eruption</a>
<a href="/facts/Lake_Kivu/19NvAKG2">Lake Kivu</a> is one of three lakes in Africa identified as having huge quantities of dissolved gas held at pressure in its depths. The other two, <a href="/facts/Cameroon/QnrdY05C">Cameroon</a>'s <a href="/facts/Lake_Monoun/Q94BJRE4">Lake Monoun</a> and <a href="/facts/Lake_Nyos/BYbWHBsl">Lake Nyos</a>, experienced <a href="/facts/Limnic_eruptions/yUdl0ec3">limnic eruptions</a> or "lake overturns", catastrophic releases of suffocating carbon dioxide probably triggered by landslides. Lake Nyos's overturn in 1986 was particularly lethal, killing nearly two thousand people in the area around the lake. Kivu is 2,000 times bigger than Lake Nyos and also contains dissolved methane as an additional hazard – though concentration of carbon dioxide is much lower than in Lake Nyos.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:231" href="#fn:231">231</a> Nearly two million people, including the population of Goma, live in the vicinity of Lake Kivu and could be in danger from a limnic eruption triggered by one of the nearby volcanoes and the earthquakes associated with them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:232" href="#fn:232">232</a>
The <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">CO2</a>-rich gas location, known locally as <a href="/facts/Mazuku/oPjwMVDW">mazuku</a> has recently caused the death of people and animals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:233" href="#fn:233">233</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:234" href="#fn:234">234</a>

<h2 id="demographics">Demographics</h2>
Historical population<table><tbody><tr><th>Year</th><th>Pop.</th><th>±%</th></tr><tr><th>1950</th><td>5,000</td><td>—    </td></tr><tr><th>1960</th><td>16,000</td><td>+220.0%</td></tr><tr><th>1970</th><td>49,000</td><td>+206.2%</td></tr><tr><th>1980</th><td>68,000</td><td>+38.8%</td></tr><tr><th>1990</th><td>111,000</td><td>+63.2%</td></tr><tr><th>2000</th><td>198,000</td><td>+78.4%</td></tr><tr><th>2010</th><td>355,000</td><td>+79.3%</td></tr><tr><th>2018</th><td>566,000</td><td>+59.4%</td></tr><tr><th>2019</th><td>599,000</td><td>+5.8%</td></tr><tr><th>2020</th><td>634,000</td><td>+5.8%</td></tr><tr><th>2021</th><td>670,000<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:235" href="#fn:235">235</a></td><td>—    </td></tr></tbody></table>Goma has experienced rapid and sustained population growth over the past decades. Historically, the city's population was relatively modest, estimated at just 80,000 in 1984.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:236" href="#fn:236">236</a> However, significant demographic shifts have occurred due to <a href="/facts/Rate_of_natural_increase/qY7kdxMQ">natural population growth</a>, <a href="/facts/Internal_migration/XHEgQGTE">internal migration</a>, and the influx of <a href="/facts/Refugee/VISfRRnT">refugees</a> from neighboring countries, particularly during periods of regional instability.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:237" href="#fn:237">237</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:238" href="#fn:238">238</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:239" href="#fn:239">239</a>
The city's population dynamics were profoundly impacted by the <a href="/facts/Rwandan_genocide/sWRxDx4q">Rwandan Genocide</a> (1994), the <a href="/facts/First_Congo_War/nvK5SfuB">First Congo War</a> (1996–1997), and the <a href="/facts/Second_Congo_War/sf5qnF8a">Second Congo War</a> (1998–2003), as well as ongoing regional tensions involving <a href="/facts/M23_offensive_(2022%E2%80%93present)/zdy3MP8d">the Rwandan-backed M23 rebel group</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:240" href="#fn:240">240</a> These events led to large-scale <a href="/facts/Rural-to-urban_migration/D1cxfeAY">rural-to-urban migration</a>, with individuals and families seeking refuge from <a href="/facts/Ethnic_conflict/UD5v1e8r">interethnic violence</a>, <a href="/facts/Political_violence/Yo3R1VQ9">political unrest</a>, and <a href="/facts/Economic_stability/ksTbvCkk">economic instability</a> in rural areas. This influx has contributed to both the expansion of Goma's physical boundaries and the transformation of its social and economic structures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:241" href="#fn:241">241</a>
As of 2024, the population of Goma is estimated at approximately 782,000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:242" href="#fn:242">242</a> However, this figure remains a subject of debate, as alternative estimates suggest the city's population may exceed two million, driven by unrecorded migration and other factors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:243" href="#fn:243">243</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:244" href="#fn:244">244</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:245" href="#fn:245">245</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:246" href="#fn:246">246</a>
The city's demographic composition consists predominantly of <a href="/facts/Bantu_languages/6xKvpQ1a">Bantu</a>-speaking ethnic groups, including the <a href="/facts/Konjo_people/0URMsDg8">Nande</a>, <a href="/facts/Nyanga_people/fM8EEM9z">Nyanga</a>, <a href="/facts/Hunde_people/6mIDGqEz">Hunde</a>, <a href="/facts/Hutu/aFuxImu0">Hutu</a>, Tembo, <a href="/facts/Bushi_(region)/kQuemcYT">Shi</a>, Kano, and <a href="/facts/Tutsi/3TGso07v">Tutsi</a> communities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:247" href="#fn:247">247</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:248" href="#fn:248">248</a>

<h2 id="culture">Culture</h2>

Goma is home of the annual <a href="/facts/Festival_Amani/vVBrde4Y">Festival Amani</a> which celebrates peace; in 2020, it attracted an audience of 36,000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:249" href="#fn:249">249</a>
Goma serves as the <a href="/facts/North_Kivu/D27suJFx">North Kivu</a>'s <a href="/facts/Cultural_center/VD5AW8DB">cultural center</a> and boasts a vibrant entertainment and performing arts scene that encompasses various media forms, including television productions, radio broadcasts, theatre, cinematic expressions, multimedia installations, and print publications. Like many cities in DRC, Goma is renowned for its lively music scene with popular genres such as <a href="/facts/Soukous/EegwDfqV">soukous</a>, <a href="/facts/Congolese_rumba/w5UE392T">Congolese rumba</a>, <a href="/facts/Ndombolo/JXX1nB4c">ndombolo</a>, and <a href="/facts/Jazz/lmUzXGq8">Jazz</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:250" href="#fn:250">250</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:251" href="#fn:251">251</a> Notable figures in Goma's popular culture scene include <a href="/facts/Innoss%27B/J9HUDKgv">Innoss'B</a>, <a href="/facts/Jonathan_Kuminga/C3xam3fN">Jonathan Kuminga</a>, <a href="/facts/Rebecca_Kabugho/YQ7jDEeo">Rebecca Kabugho</a>, <a href="/facts/Anzor_Alem/IIRPxuGc">Anzor Alem</a>, <a href="/facts/Ley_Uwera/AWlfqsWs">Ley Uwera</a>, Petna Ndaliko Katondolo, <a href="/facts/Alicios_Theluji/8tvBErqy">Alicios Theluji</a>, El Weezya Fantastikoh, <a href="/facts/Christophe_Madihano/Yt60wKY5">Christophe Madihano</a>, Patient Ligodi, Voldie Mapenzi, Mista Faba, Belamy Paluku, Willow Miller, and Vicky YM.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:252" href="#fn:252">252</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:253" href="#fn:253">253</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:254" href="#fn:254">254</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:255" href="#fn:255">255</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:256" href="#fn:256">256</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:257" href="#fn:257">257</a>

<h3>Entertainment and performing arts</h3>
During the 1970s, theatrical activities in Goma flourished, with well-organized theater troupes such as AMIKI (Amis du Kivu) with Kembo and Mazingi, CLB with Tshiaba, Kainos, and Robert De Souza, and Ngoma with Mpozayo Jean-Paul, among others. The shows were held at the city's Ciné Palace hall. Additionally, the Goma Institute organized a school troupe under the leadership of the then-prefect Lumaya Ombwel, featuring talented student actors like Robert De Souza, also known as Kablan or Gilima, and Mwamba, alias Ringo.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:258" href="#fn:258">258</a> On 16 March 2013, Goma played host to the inaugural <a href="/facts/Chukudu/8JugKMuX">tshukudu</a> race, a <a href="/facts/Wooden_bicycle/hpCpFLQh">wooden bicycle</a> race organized by the <a href="/facts/United_Nations_Volunteers/9dyF6nMo">United Nations Volunteers</a> (UNV) and Association of Volunteers of Congo (Association des Volontaires du Congo; ASVOCO), which aimed to provide opportunities for the region's unemployed youth and promote peace, with the proceeds benefiting children in <a href="/facts/Kitchanga/KvVp0rhl">Kitchanga</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:259" href="#fn:259">259</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:260" href="#fn:260">260</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:261" href="#fn:261">261</a>

Goma is a hub of art and craftsmanship, with skilled artisans creating intricate wood <a href="/facts/Carving/ICmPM8XB">carvings</a>, <a href="/facts/Pottery/XLcUT1mX">pottery</a>, <a href="/facts/Textile/PJrVeM5S">textiles</a>, and <a href="/facts/Jewellery/DYt7cj0R">jewelry</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:262" href="#fn:262">262</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:263" href="#fn:263">263</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:264" href="#fn:264">264</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:265" href="#fn:265">265</a> The city is home to Petna Ndaliko Katondolo's acclaimed multigenre film productions, which embrace a decolonial Ejo Lobi (<a href="/facts/Afrofuturism/IcsgGL4G">Afro-futuristic</a>) aesthetic that weaves together historical narratives to confront contemporary sociopolitical and cultural paradigms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:266" href="#fn:266">266</a>
The <a href="/facts/Foyer_Culturel_de_Goma/CrIoVB4j">Foyer Culturel de Goma</a> is the city's most significant <a href="/facts/Cultural_center/VD5AW8DB">cultural center</a>, which plays a pivotal role in nurturing emerging talents, including <a href="/facts/Musician/lzr1pXc7">musicians</a>, <a href="/facts/Poet/KpH2BTgg">poets</a>, thespians, and <a href="/facts/Visual_arts/95RgxP8e">visual artists</a>, as well as fostering the proliferation and commercialization of indigenous culture and artistic expression within the North Kivu Province.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:267" href="#fn:267">267</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:268" href="#fn:268">268</a> The city also hosts the <a href="/facts/Festival_Amani/vVBrde4Y">Amani Festival</a>, a <a href="/facts/Transculturalism/dQYLxFed">transcultural</a> <a href="/facts/Festival/JAg4y9fD">festival</a> drawing participants from the <a href="/facts/African_Great_Lakes/JKIdzAWF">African Great Lakes</a> region along with international artists and representatives of different ethnic groups from the region.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:269" href="#fn:269">269</a> Goma also houses Yole! Africa, a youth cultural center promoting peace through art, music, dance, and film.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:270" href="#fn:270">270</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:271" href="#fn:271">271</a> The renowned spectacle "Au Chemin des Urnes", hosted by the French Institute (IF) of Goma, celebrates the city's poetic, musical, and rhythmic tapestry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:272" href="#fn:272">272</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:273" href="#fn:273">273</a>

<h3>Infrastructure</h3>

Urbanization in Goma is in a state of progressive expansion, though the <a href="/facts/Cityscape/ICtbH7Xl">cityscape</a> remains predominantly characterized by horizontal, <a href="/facts/Low-rise_building/peWrXPlb">low-rise structures</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:274" href="#fn:274">274</a> Concentrated largely around <a href="/facts/National_Road_2_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)/yNgP3HTp">National Road 2</a>, commercial activity is vigorous, with numerous bars, shops, Nganda (local eateries), and hotels lining this central corridor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:275" href="#fn:275">275</a> Major commercial zones such as Supermatch, Nyiragongo Cement, and several key stations like Ihusi, IBB Service, AFRICOM, Ni Yetu, Tout Jeune, and GPI dominate the city's urban landscape.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:276" href="#fn:276">276</a>
While low-rise architecture remains the prevailing style due to its affordability and practicality, multi-<a href="/facts/Storey/QR0ozITQ">story</a> buildings are beginning to emerge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:277" href="#fn:277">277</a> Goma's traditional wood board construction, popular due to its speed and cost-efficiency, is increasingly complemented by more durable vertical structures, which require significantly more extended construction periods due to the materials and techniques involved.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:278" href="#fn:278">278</a>
One of the most notable developments in Goma is the Birere neighborhood, also known as Mikeno.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:279" href="#fn:279">279</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:280" href="#fn:280">280</a> The area, located within the <a href="/facts/Goma_(commune)/qFcW5opU">Goma commune</a>, is recognized as the city's oldest residential neighborhood. It is characterized by its multi-ethnic demographic and serves as a focal point for informal cross-border trade, housing numerous stores, warehouses, restaurants, and popular clubs known as 'ngandas'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:281" href="#fn:281">281</a> Birere occupies part of the "zone tampon", the neutral buffer zone between DRC and Rwanda, and remains a key location for economic activity, despite numerous efforts to shift the city's commercial heart to safer areas after the 2002 Nyiragongo volcanic eruption.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:282" href="#fn:282">282</a> The presence of the "petite barrière", a pedestrian border crossing, facilitates the illicit trade of small goods and provides a source of income for many Congolese and Rwandans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:283" href="#fn:283">283</a> 

<h3>Tourism</h3>
Goma is a popular tourist destination and offers a variety of attractions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:284" href="#fn:284">284</a> <a href="/facts/Virunga_National_Park/ds78mXsu">Virunga National Park</a>, located north of Goma, boasts more than 3,000 <a href="/facts/Fauna/sMqPFxVD">faunal</a> and <a href="/facts/Flower/7gI5Kefw">floral</a> species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:285" href="#fn:285">285</a> <a href="/facts/Tchegera_Island/n132NkBA">Tchegera Island</a> is located southwest of Goma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:286" href="#fn:286">286</a>

<h3>Cuisine</h3>

Cuisine in Goma reflects the region's agricultural abundance and diverse influences. Staple foods include <a href="/facts/Cassava/KvjKQDkV">cassava</a>, <a href="/facts/Cooking_banana/31rJyyl4">plantains</a>, <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a>, and <a href="/facts/Rice/wvL1hBCz">rice</a>, often served alongside a variety of <a href="/facts/Meat/DUHTTM1d">meats</a>, <a href="/facts/Fish/fln4gH9V">fish</a>, and <a href="/facts/Vegetable/j3AlDG64">vegetables</a>. Local specialties such as <a href="/facts/Ugali/TEXzg4YF">bugali</a> (a starchy dough), sambaza (small <a href="/facts/Dried_fish/dDp0xQUc">dried fish</a>), and sombe (cassava leaves cooked in <a href="/facts/Peanut/dMd0XWsu">peanut</a> sauce) are popular among both residents and visitors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:287" href="#fn:287">287</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:288" href="#fn:288">288</a>

<h3>Mobile networks and media</h3>
Goma offers various <a href="/facts/Cellular_network/8zA0jQJ9">cellular network</a> services such as <a href="/facts/Supercell_(mobile_network)/51bKhSkr">SuperCell</a>, <a href="/facts/Bharti_Airtel/uw56Vd2L">Airtel</a>, <a href="/facts/Vodacom/Fhvpusr8">Vodacom</a>, <a href="/facts/Orange_RDC/qktoBN0R">Orange RDC</a> (formerly Congo Chine Télécoms), and <a href="/facts/Millicom/1z81k9vz">Tigo</a>, which facilitate communication exchanges locally and internationally and play an integral role in business transactions, <a href="/facts/Social_relation/DU3HW2Ah">social interactions</a>, and <a href="/facts/Emergency_service/mpnoeREI">emergency services</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:289" href="#fn:289">289</a>
The city boasts a variety of <a href="/facts/Swahili_language/sLzhutLC">Swahili</a>, <a href="/facts/Lingala/AfCYqDDq">Lingala</a>, and <a href="/facts/French_language/qe1DnaQh">French</a> language radio stations, including <a href="/facts/Radio-T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_nationale_congolaise/PyAuMA2s">RTNC Goma</a>, <a href="/facts/Radio_Okapi/jFtjAtYm">Radio Okapi</a>, RSI (Radio Sauti ya Injili), Radio La Colombe, RTCT (Radio Télévision Communautaire Taina), RTC (Radio Télévision la Colombe), Kivu 1, Mishapi Voice TV, Mutaani, RSM (Radio Sauti ya Matumaini), VBR (Virunga Business Radio), Pool FM, RAO FM (Radio Alpha Omega), COMICO, Emmanuel TV, and Source de Vie, offering various news, <a href="/facts/Entertainment/XXRnLM62">entertainment</a>, <a href="/facts/Religious_broadcasting/BumLSh9H">religious programming</a>, and cultural content.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:290" href="#fn:290">290</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:291" href="#fn:291">291</a>
City's radios are:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:292" href="#fn:292">292</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:293" href="#fn:293">293</a>

<table><tbody><tr><th>No.</th><th>Radio</th><th>Category</th></tr><tr><td>1.</td><td><a href="/facts/Radio-T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_nationale_congolaise/PyAuMA2s">RTNC</a> (Radio Télévision Nationale Congolaise)</td><td>Public</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td><a href="/facts/Radio_Okapi/jFtjAtYm">Radio Okapi</a></td><td>Humanitarian</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>RTCT (Radio Télévision Communautaire Taina)</td><td>Community</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>RTC (Radio Télévision la Colombe)</td><td>Community</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Kivu 1</td><td>Community</td></tr><tr><td>6.</td><td>Mishapi Voice TV</td><td>Community</td></tr><tr><td>7.</td><td>Pool FM</td><td>Humanitarian</td></tr><tr><td>8.</td><td>RSI (Radio Sauti ya Injili)</td><td>Evangelical</td></tr><tr><td>9.</td><td>RAO/FM (Radio Alpha Omega)</td><td>Evangelical</td></tr><tr><td>10.</td><td>Emmanuel TV</td><td>Evangelical</td></tr><tr><td>11.</td><td>RSM (Radio Sauti ya Matumaini)</td><td>Evangelical</td></tr><tr><td>12.</td><td>VBR (Virunga Business Radio)</td><td>Private marketing radio</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Sports</h3>
<a href="/facts/Association_football/yttjeD0D">Association football</a> is Goma's most popular sport. Prominent football clubs in the city include <a href="/facts/AS_Dauphins_Noirs/Sefyu079">AS Dauphins Noirs</a>, which competes in <a href="/facts/Linafoot/CxjvVjNn">Vodacom Ligue 1</a>, the premier division of the <a href="/facts/Congolese_Association_Football_Federation/JTwjgtxG">Congolese Association Football Federation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:294" href="#fn:294">294</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:295" href="#fn:295">295</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:296" href="#fn:296">296</a> Other significant clubs include <a href="/facts/DC_Virunga/VBYthqhh">Daring Club Virunga</a> and <a href="/facts/AS_Kabasha/qcqNbhRy">Association Sportive Kabasha</a>, both of which participate in <a href="/facts/Linafoot_Ligue_2/By5cC3Ay">Linafoot Ligue 2</a>, an annual competition involving amateur football clubs across the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:297" href="#fn:297">297</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:298" href="#fn:298">298</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:299" href="#fn:299">299</a> Matches for these clubs are predominantly held at <a href="/facts/Stade_de_l%27Unit%C3%A9/V17cLYUp">Stade de l'Unité</a>, the city's primary football venue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:300" href="#fn:300">300</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:301" href="#fn:301">301</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:302" href="#fn:302">302</a> Goma also has several other notable sports facilities, including Stade Mugunga,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:303" href="#fn:303">303</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:304" href="#fn:304">304</a> <a href="/facts/Stade_des_Volcans/CFkDeXwR">Stade des Volcans</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:305" href="#fn:305">305</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:306" href="#fn:306">306</a> and Stade Afia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:307" href="#fn:307">307</a>

In addition to football, Goma is home to the Stade Paralympique de Goma, a dedicated <a href="/facts/Basketball/M5pl4Pzo">basketball</a> stadium that hosts national <a href="/facts/Wheelchair_basketball/XtUah4qI">wheelchair basketball</a> championships.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:308" href="#fn:308">308</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:309" href="#fn:309">309</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:310" href="#fn:310">310</a>
<a href="/facts/Boxing/BrY1zmP4">Boxing</a> also plays a significant role in Goma's sports culture, with the city hosting a variety of boxing events, including inter-regional boxing tournaments at the Higher Institute of Commerce of Goma (Institut supérieur de Commerce de Goma; ISC-Goma).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:311" href="#fn:311">311</a> In 2015, Goma served as the host city for an inter-regional boxing tournament organized by the brewing company Brasimba of <a href="/facts/Beni,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/lBKotGC3">Beni</a>, which attracted both amateur and professional pugilists from Goma, <a href="/facts/Bukavu/RIXk2vMM">Bukavu</a>, Beni, <a href="/facts/Butembo/wkhHc5dE">Butembo</a>, and <a href="/facts/Rwanda/UKR5UdKy">Rwanda</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:312" href="#fn:312">312</a> On 30 June 2024, Goma hosted a Boxing Gala organized by the North Kivu Boxing League to commemorate the nation's independence, featuring participants from North Kivu, <a href="/facts/South_Kivu/M68QPU0k">South Kivu</a>, and <a href="/facts/Maniema/d2Lj3lwn">Maniema</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:313" href="#fn:313">313</a>

<h2 id="places-of-worship">Places of worship</h2>
Goma is home to several Christian churches and temples including the churches of the <a href="/facts/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Goma/ql2J7Cnt">Roman Catholic Diocese of Goma</a>, <a href="/facts/Kimbanguism/LUBBvLlm">Kimbanguist Church</a>, <a href="/facts/Baptist_Community_of_Congo/hAe8wEDm">Baptist Community of Congo</a> (<a href="/facts/Baptist_World_Alliance/TezS1MDX">World Baptist Alliance</a>), the Baptist Community in the Center of Africa (World Baptist Alliance), <a href="/facts/Assemblies_of_God/QFDuIDBX">Assemblies of God</a>, <a href="/facts/Province_of_the_Anglican_Church_of_the_Congo/jato7Qar">Province of the Anglican Church of Congo</a> (<a href="/facts/Anglican_Communion/N8l7GJUE">Anglican Communion</a>), Presbyterian Community in Congo (<a href="/facts/World_Communion_of_Reformed_Churches/oodEjaVP">World Communion of Reformed Churches</a>). There are also Muslim <a href="/facts/Mosque/U51uY78w">mosques</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:314" href="#fn:314">314</a>

<h2 id="economy">Economy</h2>

<h3>Agriculture</h3>
Goma's economy relies mainly on <a href="/facts/Agriculture/TGztqzJs">agriculture</a>, with a significant proportion of its population engaged in the trade of <a href="/facts/Agricultural_productivity/bUIfYsFW">agricultural products</a>. However, due to the instability of the local currency, economic transactions often involve foreign currencies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:315" href="#fn:315">315</a> Primarily centered on the production of <a href="/facts/Raw_material/cthCpclF">raw materials</a>, including plant agriculture, <a href="/facts/Fishing/EBVEPvhI">fishing</a>, <a href="/facts/Hunting/z1XhJdB2">hunting</a>, and <a href="/facts/Fish_farming/PA6EKo97">fish farming</a>, these activities typically employ artisanal methods and antiquated production techniques. Agricultural products are primarily sourced from neighboring territories such as <a href="/facts/Masisi_Territory/Kmu8KFxC">Masisi</a> and <a href="/facts/Rutshuru_Territory/vYoYRmpG">Rutshuru</a>, supplemented by the resources of <a href="/facts/Lake_Kivu/19NvAKG2">Lake Kivu</a>, which hosts thriving <a href="/facts/Fish_market/4UwTxPJ1">fish markets</a> along its shores twice a week.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:316" href="#fn:316">316</a> Cultivation primarily focuses on garden crops and selected <a href="/facts/Staple_food/GNo3putV">staples</a> such as <a href="/facts/Legume/x6s6gVHY">legumes</a>, <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a>, and <a href="/facts/Tuber/wGw2Sbag">tubers</a>, leveraging the fertile volcanic soil enriched by <a href="/facts/Basalt/uhbwGPTb">basaltic</a> substrata. Nevertheless, the dense population necessitates <a href="/facts/Economic_diversification/8KHCE7Ss">diversification</a> to ensure <a href="/facts/Food_security/cKrQd4E9">food security</a> and foster interdependence with neighboring territories and countries for supplementary yields.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:317" href="#fn:317">317</a>

Historically, the colonial administration catalyzed economic development by introducing <a href="/facts/Plantation/jucwoWpV">plantation</a> agriculture in North Kivu's fertile highlands, establishing the region as a critical "food basket" for the <a href="/facts/Belgian_Congo/KeenpcUJ">Belgian Congo</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:318" href="#fn:318">318</a> Legislative frameworks, including the Draft Decree and Royal Decree of 12 December 1939, laid the foundation for agricultural oversight. This initiative culminated in the establishment of OPAC (Office des Produits Agricoles de Costermansville) on 4 February 1948, subsequently renamed OPAK (Office des Produits Agricoles du Kivu; currently known as Office Nationale du Café, ONC).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:319" href="#fn:319">319</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:320" href="#fn:320">320</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:321" href="#fn:321">321</a> These agencies oversaw the production and export of <a href="/facts/Cash_crop/fwvVrxLT">cash crops</a> such as <a href="/facts/Coffea_arabica/noXPsKj4">Coffea arabica</a> and <a href="/facts/Pyrethrum/mdyKjAu9">pyrethrum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:322" href="#fn:322">322</a> During this era, substantial quantities of <a href="/facts/Cereal/ao2WcFdM">cereals</a>, tubers, meat, and <a href="/facts/Palm_oil/n8zHXqoG">palm oil</a> were routed through Goma for redistribution to urban epicenters such as <a href="/facts/Kinshasa/REHVNkdc">Kinshasa</a> and <a href="/facts/Kisangani/JtSXgoVe">Kisangani</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:323" href="#fn:323">323</a> The construction of a port in Keshero, later repositioned nearer to central Goma, augmented <a href="/facts/Trade_route/6x9h40Cy">trade routes</a>, integrating the city into a north-south <a href="/facts/Economic_corridor/B8XDwtb8">economic corridor</a> extending through <a href="/facts/Bunia/SjBo3S56">Bunia</a>, Rutshuru, <a href="/facts/Bukavu/RIXk2vMM">Bukavu</a>, <a href="/facts/Uvira/dIcEApzs">Uvira</a>, and <a href="/facts/Kalemie/cIkw8jL5">Kalemie</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:324" href="#fn:324">324</a> While the colonial economy also invested in resource extraction, North Kivu's mining sector remained underdeveloped relative to mineral-rich regions like <a href="/facts/Ituri_Province/IDEs9IrU">Ituri</a> and <a href="/facts/South_Kivu/M68QPU0k">South Kivu</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:325" href="#fn:325">325</a> Consequently, Goma's prominence as a mineral trading hub was relatively subdued until the 1980s. However, pre-existing cross-border trade routes connecting Goma to markets in Uganda and Rwanda persisted, providing the foundation for local commerce even after independence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:326" href="#fn:326">326</a>
In the post-independence era, these historical trade networks gained significance as the local population increasingly relied on informal and transborder economic activities to circumvent the exploitative practices of the Zairean state.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:327" href="#fn:327">327</a> By the 1980s, a substantial portion of agricultural production, including <a href="/facts/Papaya/VKB9mrnk">papaya</a>, <a href="/facts/Tea/oDQhcyrc">tea</a>, <a href="/facts/Cinchona/yTWWW2ao">cinchona</a>, and coffee, was smuggled or exported through informal channels, with <a href="/facts/Goma_International_Airport/XL9bmTNn">Goma International Airport</a> playing a key role in this clandestine commerce.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:328" href="#fn:328">328</a> Estimates from 1985–1986 suggest that up to 60% of local coffee production bypassed formal export systems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:329" href="#fn:329">329</a> In 2001, the Compagnie pour la Promotion des Activités Café (COOPAC) was established, headquartered in the Les Volcans neighborhood of the <a href="/facts/Goma_(commune)/qFcW5opU">Goma commune</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:330" href="#fn:330">330</a> COOPAC has become a leading player in the coffee industry, overseeing coffee-related operations in eastern Congo and an integrated coffee processing chain, including a <a href="/facts/Husk/YAnnCM14">hulling</a> facility established in 2004 and a washing station situated along the shores of Lake Kivu.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:331" href="#fn:331">331</a> The city is also home to Maizeking, an industrial enterprise specializing in the manufacturing of products derived from <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">corn</a>, <a href="/facts/Sorghum/D1KNhtdT">sorghum</a>, <a href="/facts/Soybean/reNwxvo2">soybeans</a>, and <a href="/facts/Wheat/lrk6HdV3">wheat</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:332" href="#fn:332">332</a> 

<h3>Secondary and tertiary sectors</h3>
The <a href="/facts/Secondary_sector_of_the_economy/X0sdl2dF">secondary sector</a>, though relatively underdeveloped, holds potential for growth, given the city's dense population, which provides abundant labor force and potentially mitigates production overheads for entrepreneurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:333" href="#fn:333">333</a> Notable manufacturing enterprises include the MTC (Master Tabac Congo) conglomerate producing premium-grade <a href="/facts/Cigarette/8kuVCjbr">cigarettes</a>, coffee processing factories like SOTRAKI and ONC as well as food production companies such as Au Bon Pain and Boulangerie Mont Carmel, which manufacture baked goods.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:334" href="#fn:334">334</a> Other industrial entities include Nyiragongo Cement, a <a href="/facts/Cement/VfDMkk12">cement</a> production facility; Mbinza, a <a href="/facts/Mattress/6nG56eDX">mattress</a> manufacturing company; and La Chocolaterie Lowa, a Congolese <a href="/facts/Chocolate/4drs8ryf">chocolate</a> producer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:335" href="#fn:335">335</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:336" href="#fn:336">336</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:337" href="#fn:337">337</a> Additionally, the city has a growing bottled water industry and photographic processing facilities, such as Fujicolor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:338" href="#fn:338">338</a>
The <a href="/facts/Financial_services/azqCQelN">financial industry</a> is a significant component, with <a href="/facts/Bank/l7VsKwas">banking</a> and <a href="/facts/Non-bank_financial_institution/bgaBAWdI">non-banking financial institutions</a> serving the city's population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:339" href="#fn:339">339</a> Banking institutions like <a href="/facts/Central_Bank_of_the_Congo/REAu4DUt">Central Bank of the Congo</a>, Banque Privée du Congo, <a href="/facts/Bank_of_Africa/BxhGeAa2">Bank of Africa</a>, Banque Commerciale et de Développement, Banque Internationale de Crédit, Banque Internationale pour l'Afrique Central, <a href="/facts/Equity_Banque_Commerciale_du_Congo/RrLYyEso">Equity Banque Commerciale du Congo</a>, <a href="/facts/Standard_Bank/MP9wv0x2">Standard Bank</a>, First International Bank, <a href="/facts/Trust_Merchant_Bank/xLCzTAar">Trust Merchant Bank</a>, <a href="/facts/Rawbank/dxkl9sgM">Rawbank</a>, <a href="/facts/Afriland_First_Bank/74GzS1aM">Afriland First Bank</a>, <a href="/facts/Access_Bank_plc/45TJUAHA">Acces Bank</a>, <a href="/facts/Ecobank_Group/DybMrmoE">Eco Bank</a> Democratic Republic of the Congo, and others provide financial services,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:340" href="#fn:340">340</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:341" href="#fn:341">341</a> while non-banking institutions, including 17 microfinance organizations, fortified with credit components cater to various fiscal needs within the city.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:342" href="#fn:342">342</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:343" href="#fn:343">343</a> Notably, microfinance entities like SOMIF/NFT, IMF Hekima, PAIDEK, Sociéte de Microcrédit Congolais, SOMIFI/REJEDE, COOPEC-Imara, COOPEC-Tumanini, and IMF PAIF, as well as NGOs like the Initiative Congolaise pour la Gestion Autonome des Populations (ICGP), the Association of Support for Grassroots Initiatives, Association d'Appui aux Initiatives de Base (APIBA), Organisation des Femmes pour le Développement (OFED), Solidarité et Fraternité dans l'Action, and Association de diabétiques du Congo (ADIC), contribute to economic development by supporting <a href="/facts/Small_business/a6BhC6U0">small businesses</a> and entrepreneurial ventures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:344" href="#fn:344">344</a> The city is also home to quasi-public non-bank financial institutions exemplified by Société Nationale d'Assurance (SONAS), Institution Nationale de Sécurité Sociale (INSS), Caisse Générale d'Épargne et de Crédit (CADECO), and <a href="/facts/Congolese_Posts_and_Telecommunications_Corporation/khzGllVq">Société Congolaise des Postes et Télécommunications</a> (SCPT).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:345" href="#fn:345">345</a>
Goma benefits from support organizations like <a href="/facts/United_Nations_Development_Programme/y3gpXUHD">UNDP</a>, UWEKI, and CAFED, which foster entrepreneurship, provide training, and facilitate access to resources for local businesses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:346" href="#fn:346">346</a>

<h2 id="transport">Transport</h2>

<h3>Air</h3>
<a href="/facts/Aviation/HX5MHY71">Aviation</a> is a significant transport mode linking Goma with <a href="/facts/Domestic_flight/celzz53w">domestic</a> and <a href="/facts/International_flight/XfaR56Se">international</a> destinations. <a href="/facts/Goma_International_Airport/XL9bmTNn">Goma International Airport</a>, which serves as the city's principal gateway, handles passenger and cargo traffic and facilitates two international routes to <a href="/facts/Entebbe/vfxkuJhl">Entebbe</a> and <a href="/facts/Nairobi/AykVFgL3">Nairobi</a>, serviced by <a href="/facts/Ethiopian_Airlines/qa19MugD">Ethiopian Airlines</a> and <a href="/facts/Jambojet/jsR0UAUW">Jambojet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:347" href="#fn:347">347</a> However, the aviation industry in Goma has changed over the years with the emergence and departure of various carriers. While enterprises such as Virunga Air, Charter, and <a href="/facts/Sunair/u6TJ2p0x">Sunair</a> have ceased operations, stalwart aviation entities like société de Transports et Messageries au Kivu SARL (TMK), alongside <a href="/facts/Wimbi_Dira_Airways/gQVzqRwD">Wimbi Dira Airways</a> and <a href="/facts/Hewa_Bora_Airways/sMXy22Ry">Hewa Bora Airways</a> persist in operating and rendering their services.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:348" href="#fn:348">348</a>

<h3>Maritime</h3>
<a href="/facts/Maritime_transport/rB1EQAfm">Maritime transport</a> is also an essential mode of transportation, connecting Goma with nearby cities like <a href="/facts/Bukavu/RIXk2vMM">Bukavu</a> in the <a href="/facts/South_Kivu/M68QPU0k">South Kivu Province</a>. Boats and ferries operated by companies such as the <a href="/facts/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_nationale_des_chemins_de_fer_du_Congo/szP1IBMv">Société Nationale des Chemins de fer du Congo</a> (SNCC) and private operators like Rafiki and Ihusi Hotel facilitate the movement of people and <a href="/facts/Merchandise/1bqc9qV0">merchandise</a> goods across Lake Kivu.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:349" href="#fn:349">349</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:350" href="#fn:350">350</a> Notably, boats such as Emmanuel 2, assembled locally, provide an alternative mode of transport, significantly reducing travel time compared to road travel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:351" href="#fn:351">351</a>

<h3>Road</h3>

<a href="/facts/Road_transport/z2IPvusI">Road transport</a>, presided over by private operators, is vital for intra-city and inter-city travel, encompassing a network of paved and unpaved routes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:352" href="#fn:352">352</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:353" href="#fn:353">353</a> <a href="/facts/National_Road_2_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)/yNgP3HTp">National Road No. 2</a> bisects the urban landscape, supplemented by smaller road segments, though their cumulative length is at most three kilometers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:354" href="#fn:354">354</a> The city's road transport system comprises various vehicles, including car, trucks, buses and motorcycles, with car and motorcycle taxis facilitating the majority of shuttle services.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:355" href="#fn:355">355</a> Car taxis, often referred to as city taxis, are predominantly used for <a href="/facts/Passenger_transport/npstdhvc">passenger transport</a>, while luggage taxis cater to the movement of goods. Motorcycle taxis, commonly employed for both passenger and small package deliveries, play a vital role in local mobility.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:356" href="#fn:356">356</a> Goma's location on the Rwandan border ensures its connectivity to <a href="/facts/Gisenyi/WIGr6Gcw">Gisenyi</a>, with regular bus services facilitating travel between Goma and <a href="/facts/Kigali/nrmQaxMX">Kigali</a> in less than four hours.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:357" href="#fn:357">357</a> Goma's road network connects to <a href="/facts/Masisi,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/N4dXrcBs">Masisi</a>, <a href="/facts/Walikale/rtFmgvgs">Walikale</a>, <a href="/facts/Kisangani/JtSXgoVe">Kisangani</a>, <a href="/facts/Rutshuru/F4uthXyl">Rutshuru</a>, <a href="/facts/Butembo/wkhHc5dE">Butembo</a>, <a href="/facts/Beni,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/lBKotGC3">Beni</a>, <a href="/facts/Kasindi/x6rX30pB">Kasindi</a>, <a href="/facts/Bunia/SjBo3S56">Bunia</a>, and <a href="/facts/Bukavu/RIXk2vMM">Bukavu</a>, among other destinations. Within the city, motorcycles operate day and night, with different drivers serving distinct shifts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:358" href="#fn:358">358</a> Although major roads in Goma have improved, some residential avenues remain underdeveloped. Numerous roads are obstructed, either by improperly constructed homes, mountains of discarded waste, or incomplete construction projects, thereby limiting vehicular access in specific neighborhoods.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:359" href="#fn:359">359</a>

<h2 id="government">Government</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_governors_of_North_Kivu/X1U34MR0">List of governors of North Kivu</a>
Goma is a four member <a href="/facts/Electoral_district/BscesP5j">electoral district</a> of the 2024–2029 <a href="/facts/National_Assembly_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/rLPwlanH">National Assembly</a>, the deputies are:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:360" href="#fn:360">360</a>

<ul><li>Hubert Furuguta (A/A-UNC)</li>
<li>Charles Kakule (AAD-A) <a href="/facts/Substitute_(elections)/PQzzg3B2">replacing</a> <a href="/facts/Muhindo_Nzangi/FR2YFnrc">Muhindo Nzangi</a> nominated to the <a href="/facts/Suminwa_government/mINemwTz">Suminwa government</a></li>
<li>Erick Lucky Mumbere (A/B50)</li>
<li>Patrick Munyomo (AFDC-A)</li></ul>
<h3>List of mayors</h3>
<ul><li>Kana Guzangamana, 1989–1991<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:361" href="#fn:361">361</a></li>
<li>Mingale Mwenemalibu, 1991 (for a few months)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:362" href="#fn:362">362</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:363" href="#fn:363">363</a></li>
<li>Athanase Kahanya Kimuha Tasi, 1991–1993<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:364" href="#fn:364">364</a></li>
<li>Mashako Mamba Sebi 1993–1998<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:365" href="#fn:365">365</a></li>
<li>Kisuba Shebaeni 1998–2001<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:366" href="#fn:366">366</a></li>
<li>Francois-Xavier Nzabara Masetsa 2001–2005<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:367" href="#fn:367">367</a></li>
<li>Polydore Wundi Kwavwirwa 2005–2008<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:368" href="#fn:368">368</a></li>
<li>Roger Rachid Tumbula, 2008–2011<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:369" href="#fn:369">369</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:370" href="#fn:370">370</a></li>
<li>Jean Busanga Malihaseme, October 2011 – July 2012<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:371" href="#fn:371">371</a></li>
<li>Naason Kubuya Ndoole, July 2012–2015<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:372" href="#fn:372">372</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:373" href="#fn:373">373</a></li>
<li>Dieudonné Malere Mamicho, 2015–2018<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:374" href="#fn:374">374</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:375" href="#fn:375">375</a></li>
<li>Timothée Mwisa Kyese, February 2018–2022<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:376" href="#fn:376">376</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:377" href="#fn:377">377</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:378" href="#fn:378">378</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:379" href="#fn:379">379</a></li>
<li>Prof. Kennedy Kihangi Bindu, November 2022–2023<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:380" href="#fn:380">380</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:381" href="#fn:381">381</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:382" href="#fn:382">382</a></li>
<li>Faustin Kapend Kamand, July 2023–present<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:383" href="#fn:383">383</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="education">Education</h2>

Goma's education system is organized into three main levels: <a href="/facts/Kindergarten/pLuerM4c">Kindergarten</a>, for children aged 3 to 5; <a href="/facts/Primary_school/cIoH1x09">Primary school</a>, designed for students aged 6 to 12; and <a href="/facts/Secondary_school/GjEqd0fa">Secondary school</a>, which accommodates teenagers aged 12 to 18.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:384" href="#fn:384">384</a> Beyond <a href="/facts/Basic_education/SrYzFWJb">basic education</a>, Goma serves as an academic hub for <a href="/facts/Tertiary_education/WMN5RpeC">post-secondary education</a>, hosting several prestigious institutions governed by the Ministry of Higher and University Education (Ministère de l'Enseignement Supérieur et Universitaire, ESU).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:385" href="#fn:385">385</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:386" href="#fn:386">386</a> The city is home to two of the nation's best universities: the <a href="/facts/Free_University_of_the_Great_Lakes_Countries/YVGlLMRz">Free University of the Great Lakes Countries</a> (ULPGL) and the <a href="/facts/University_of_Goma/FF95cjbh">University of Goma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:387" href="#fn:387">387</a> In 2016, ULPGL achieved second place nationally according to International Colleges and Universities and third place in the <a href="/facts/Webometrics_Ranking_of_World_Universities/VD06CB2I">Webometrics</a> ranking, which positioned it 19,099th globally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:388" href="#fn:388">388</a>
In addition to these flagship institutions, Goma boasts a wide range of operational higher education institutions:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:389" href="#fn:389">389</a>

<table><tbody><tr><th>No.</th><th>Name of the institution</th></tr><tr><td>1.</td><td>Université de CEPROMAD (UNIC-Goma)</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td><a href="/facts/Adventist_University_of_Goma/AnCH1gF2">Université Adventiste de Goma</a> (UAGO)</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td><a href="/facts/Free_University_of_the_Great_Lakes_Countries/YVGlLMRz">Université Libre des Pays de Grand Lac</a> (ULPGL)</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td><a href="/facts/University_of_Goma/FF95cjbh">Université de Goma</a> (UNIGOM)</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Université du Kivu (UNIKIVU)</td></tr><tr><td>6.</td><td>Université de la Conservation de la Nature et de Développement de Kasugho (UCNDK-Goma)</td></tr><tr><td>7.</td><td>Université Libre du Kivu (ULKI)</td></tr><tr><td>8.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de Formation Bancaire d'Assurance et d'Administration publique (ISABAS)</td></tr><tr><td>9.</td><td>Université Saint Joseph</td></tr><tr><td>10.</td><td>Université de la Paix (UNIP-RDC)</td></tr><tr><td>11.</td><td>Université de l'Afrique Subsaharienne (UAS)</td></tr><tr><td>12.</td><td>Université Francophone du Congo (UFC)</td></tr><tr><td>13.</td><td>Université Progressiste des Grands Lacs (UPROGL)</td></tr><tr><td>14.</td><td>Université des Hautes Technologies de Grands Lacs</td></tr><tr><td>15.</td><td>Sahel Institut Supérieur de Science et Technologie (SIST)</td></tr><tr><td>16.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de Commerce (ISC)</td></tr><tr><td>17.</td><td>Institut Supérieur Pédagogique (ISP-Goma)</td></tr><tr><td>18.</td><td>Institut Supérieur Pédagogique (ISP-Nyiragongo)</td></tr><tr><td>19.</td><td>Institut Supérieur Pédagogique (ISP-Machumbi)</td></tr><tr><td>20.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de Tourisme (ISTOU)</td></tr><tr><td>21.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de Management de Grand Lac (ISMGL)</td></tr><tr><td>22.</td><td>Institut Supérieur des Techniques Appliquées (ISTA)</td></tr><tr><td>23.</td><td>Ecole Nationale de Cadastre</td></tr><tr><td>24.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Grand Lac (ISDR-GL)</td></tr><tr><td>25.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural (ISDR)</td></tr><tr><td>26.</td><td>ISTAD</td></tr><tr><td>27.</td><td>ISTAC</td></tr><tr><td>28.</td><td>ISPD</td></tr><tr><td>29.</td><td>ISTD</td></tr><tr><td>30.</td><td>ISTGEA</td></tr><tr><td>31.</td><td>ISTG</td></tr><tr><td>32.</td><td>SDR-Graben</td></tr><tr><td>33.</td><td>ISESOD</td></tr><tr><td>34.</td><td>Institut Superieur des Arts et des Métiers (ISAM-Goma)</td></tr><tr><td>35.</td><td>Institut de Batiment et Travaux Publics (IBTP-Goma)</td></tr><tr><td>36.</td><td>IBTP-Rutshuru</td></tr><tr><td>37.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de la Sapientia (ISSA)</td></tr><tr><td>38.</td><td>Grand Séminaire de Buhimba</td></tr><tr><td>39.</td><td>Institut Facultaire de Droit (IFAD)</td></tr><tr><td>40.</td><td>Institut Supérieur d'Administration et de Gestion</td></tr><tr><td>41.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de Techniques Médicales (ISTM)</td></tr><tr><td>42.</td><td>Institut Supérieur des Techniques Médicales et de Développement (ISTMD)</td></tr><tr><td>43.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural (ISDR-Goma)</td></tr><tr><td>44.</td><td>ISSAGEA</td></tr><tr><td>45.</td><td>Institut Supérieur de Science de Santé de la Croix Rouge de Goma (ISSSCR-Goma)</td></tr><tr><td>46.</td><td>Centre Universitaire de Paix (CUP)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2 id="crime">Crime</h2>

Since early 2019, violent crimes such as <a href="/facts/Murder/GV3zvVYY">murders</a>, <a href="/facts/Robbery/lWAlNkRS">robberies</a>, and <a href="/facts/Kidnapping/6LBBe1NV">kidnappings</a> have plagued outlying neighborhoods, notably Ndosho and Mugunga in <a href="/facts/Karisimbi_(commune)/kspn6rpw">Karisimbi commune</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:390" href="#fn:390">390</a> Ndosho, known for its bustling <a href="/facts/Marketplace/TaoHSSq2">markets</a> and <a href="/facts/Brothel/cfbd8vt0">brothels</a>, is characterized by high crime rates and <a href="/facts/Ethnic_conflict/UD5v1e8r">ethnic heterogeneity</a>, while Mugunga, predominantly populated by <a href="/facts/Hutu/aFuxImu0">Hutus</a>, formerly hosted extensive refugee camps in the aftermath of the <a href="/facts/Rwandan_genocide/sWRxDx4q">Rwandan genocide</a>, alongside sizable IDPs settlements during periods of heightened conflict between the <a href="/facts/National_Congress_for_the_Defence_of_the_People/GJplUfVD">CNDP</a> (and subsequently <a href="/facts/M23_rebellion_(2012%E2%80%932013)/l4XJII9Q">M23</a>) and the <a href="/facts/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/L0djRB38">FARDC</a> from 2008 to 2010 and 2012 to 2013.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:391" href="#fn:391">391</a> Although the camps have been dismantled, the neighborhood is characterized by a high number of former IDPs (<a href="/facts/Hunde_people/6mIDGqEz">Hunde</a> and Hutu) who settled in Mugunga. Both neighborhoods border <a href="/facts/Virunga_National_Park/ds78mXsu">Virunga National Park</a> to the north and the main road to <a href="/facts/Sake,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/N6e7tgG5">Sake</a> to the south, dividing the <a href="/facts/Goma_(commune)/qFcW5opU">Goma</a> and <a href="/facts/Karisimbi_(commune)/kspn6rpw">Karisimbi</a> communes, with diurnal activities centered along this road.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:392" href="#fn:392">392</a>
A significant number of Mugunga's inhabitants, including <a href="/facts/Brigandage/tAoE1vtU">brigands</a> and maibobo (<a href="/facts/Street_children/NsjNa6gg">street children</a>), gravitate towards Ndosho during daylight hours, lured by its superior commercial prospects. Throughout the day, encounters with insecurity primarily revolve around <a href="/facts/Pickpocketing/Pb9rGkQq">pickpocketing</a>, <a href="/facts/Extortion/tv3TraAp">extortion</a> by maibobo, <a href="/facts/Gang/Wj4omovT">gang</a>-related <a href="/facts/Harassment/MoE10cW3">harassment</a>, and coercive measures employed by security personnel in Ndosho.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:393" href="#fn:393">393</a> Brigandage and petty crime have evolved into a viable means of subsistence for many and are part of an urban economy of survival and enrichment. Pilfered <a href="/facts/Merchandising/1bqc9qV0">merchandise</a> goods are openly sold in the markets, with numerous criminals attaining notoriety within their neighborhoods and certain gang leaders achieving city-wide renown.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:394" href="#fn:394">394</a> During the night, security conditions worsen and become more violent. Most residents return to their homes, while mixed patrols of the <a href="/facts/Congolese_National_Police/WaRj1x5W">Police Nationale Congolaise</a> (PNC) and Police Militaire (PM) units, along with gangs, prowl around the streets. Without <a href="/facts/Pedestrian/Vc8a4xer">pedestrian</a> <a href="/facts/Traffic/cHx4tMo1">traffic</a> and under the cloak of darkness, it becomes easier for bandits, thieves, and even unscrupulous police and military officers to operate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:395" href="#fn:395">395</a>

<h3>Coltan conflict-driven crime</h3>

The regional conflict surrounding coltan and other lucrative resources has compounded Goma's challenges with crime.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:396" href="#fn:396">396</a> Armed groups, including the <a href="/facts/Rwanda_Defence_Force/Es2SsJvj">Rwandan military</a>, the <a href="/facts/Rally_for_Congolese_Democracy%E2%80%93Goma/BEecKq3z">RCD-Goma</a>, and various opposition factions, have been implicated in the systemic targeting of civilians as they vied for dominion over resource-abundant zones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:397" href="#fn:397">397</a> During 2000 and 2001, RCD-Goma forces reportedly conducted a spate of violent incursions into residences, particularly targeting individuals engaged in the <a href="/facts/Coltan/5s1wmyfr">coltan</a> trade. Notably, on 18 November 2000, armed men, including RCD-Goma combatants, attacked the residence of Edouard Kasereka Kahimba, a coltan buyer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:398" href="#fn:398">398</a> The assailants demanded <a href="/facts/Business_record/6lXbI4gH">business records</a> and coltan, injuring Kahimba and assaulting his family members.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:399" href="#fn:399">399</a> On 29 December 2000, combatants reportedly targeted a coltan trader known as "Safro" Sanvura, ransacking his residence and shooting indiscriminately. Similar incidents persisted into 2001, such as the attack on Pierre Hakizimana on 9 April, in which he was robbed of $3,000 at gunpoint.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:400" href="#fn:400">400</a>
On 8 September 2001, unidentified men in uniform conducted an early-morning attack on Sengiyumva, a 41-year-old coltan trader residing in the Katoyi neighborhood of Kasirimbi.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:401" href="#fn:401">401</a> He sustained three gunshot wounds to his leg after being beaten with sticks, with both cash and mineral resources being seized.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:402" href="#fn:402">402</a> Subsequently, on 14 October 2001, another trader, Papy, aged 26, endured a violent assault in his home, resulting in two gunshot wounds to the abdomen, allegedly inflicted by RCD-Goma forces. Though Papy survived, he required prolonged hospitalization for recovery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:403" href="#fn:403">403</a>

<h2 id="other-features-of-goma">Other features of Goma</h2>
Goma hosts the <a href="/facts/Free_University_of_the_Great_Lakes_Countries/YVGlLMRz">Free University of the Great Lakes Countries</a>, which supports local development initiatives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:404" href="#fn:404">404</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:405" href="#fn:405">405</a>
The <a href="/facts/Goma_International_Airport/XL9bmTNn">Goma International Airport</a> accepts commercial charter flights and also, passenger flights operated by Ethiopian Airlines and Jambojet travel to <a href="/facts/Addis_Ababa/8TmdnlmM">Addis Ababa</a> and Nairobi.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:406" href="#fn:406">406</a>
Goma has four or five lakeside wharves totaling about 130 m (430 ft), the longest being about 80 m (260 ft).
As of 2014, an art gallery had opened, featuring local woodcarving, painting, and <a href="/facts/Puppets/3x16RI1z">puppets</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:407" href="#fn:407">407</a>
Goma hosts a Catholic priest seminary Redemptoris Mater run by the <a href="/facts/Neocatechumenal_Way/xkjMLzcw">Neocatechumenal Way</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:408" href="#fn:408">408</a>

<h2 id="international-relations">International relations</h2>
<h3>Twin towns and sister cities</h3>
Goma is <a href="/facts/Sister_city/NVzDyA7v">twinned</a> with:

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Belgium/YKuMXP5j"></a> <a href="/facts/Woluwe-Saint-Pierre/6pP3SjuX">Woluwe-Saint-Pierre</a>, <a href="/facts/Belgium/YKuMXP5j">Belgium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:409" href="#fn:409">409</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:410" href="#fn:410">410</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Goma.

<ul><li> Goma travel guide from Wikivoyage</li>
<li>Tom Casadevall of the <a href="/facts/United_States_Geological_Survey/nVaGtMjl">United States Geological Survey</a>; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706212813/http://cgs.illinois.edu/resources/webvideo/the-1994-rwandan-refugee-crisis-cultural-awareness-managing-natural-disasters">"The 1994 Rwandan Refugee Crisis: Cultural Awareness in Managing Natural Disasters" (1h28m streaming video)</a>. Lecture given at <a href="/facts/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign/gusw7HoS">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> on vulcanology around Goma</li>
<li>Jordhus-Lier, David: <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110430042505/http://blog.nibrinternational.no/#post7">Life and Death in the Great Lakes Region</a>. The NIBR International Blog, 15.02.2010.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Goma, Democratic Republic of the Congo Population (2025)". PopulationStat. Retrieved 7 February 2025. <a href="https://populationstat.com/democratic-republic-of-the-congo/goma" target="_blank">https://populationstat.com/democratic-republic-of-the-congo/goma</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Kakozi, Willy Missumba; Katembo, Barry; Mazirane, Pierrot; Lukusa, Patricia Mishika; Baluntu, Edo; Makombe, Espe ́rance; Bahire, Claudine Munyatwari; Murabazi, Justin; Mukuku, Olivier (2022). "Determinants of knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices for COVID-19 infection in Goma, DRC". Syncsci.com. Others: Zacharie Kibendelwa Tsongo, Stanis Okitotsho Wembonyama. Retrieved 7 February 2024. <a href="https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750" target="_blank">https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">UN News. Security Council hears of ongoing imperative to end violence in eastern DR Congo. 9 December 2024. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Global_Communications" target="_blank">/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Global_Communications</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Rolley, Sonia. Thousands uprooted as Congo M23 rebels near Goma in major advance. Reuters, 23 January 2025. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/thousands-uprooted-congo-m23-rebels-near-goma-major-advance-2025-01-23/" target="_blank">https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/thousands-uprooted-congo-m23-rebels-near-goma-major-advance-2025-01-23/</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Nantulya, Paul. "Risk of Regional Conflict Following Fall of Goma and M23 Offensive in the DRC". Africa Center. Retrieved 2025-02-01. <a href="https://africacenter.org/spotlight/risk-of-regional-conflict-following-fall-of-goma-and-m23-offensive-in-the-drc/" target="_blank">https://africacenter.org/spotlight/risk-of-regional-conflict-following-fall-of-goma-and-m23-offensive-in-the-drc/</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désœuvré de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Salama, Umbo (24 December 2022). "Au Nord-Kivu, des villes et territoires n'ont plus des noms authentiques" [Let's get back to our words, tones… names of places in North Kivu]. IciCongo (in French). Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://icicongo.net/2022/12/24/revenons-a-nos-mots-tons-des-noms-des-lieux-du-nord-kivu/" target="_blank">https://icicongo.net/2022/12/24/revenons-a-nos-mots-tons-des-noms-des-lieux-du-nord-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Seck, Nago (6 July 2008). "Le ngoma". Afrisson (in French). Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.afrisson.com/ngoma-5483/" target="_blank">https://www.afrisson.com/ngoma-5483/</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">"Ngoma". Sekuru's Stories. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://sekuru.org/ngoma/" target="_blank">https://sekuru.org/ngoma/</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Seck, Nago (6 July 2008). "Le ngoma". Afrisson (in French). Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.afrisson.com/ngoma-5483/" target="_blank">https://www.afrisson.com/ngoma-5483/</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">"Ngoma". Sekuru's Stories. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://sekuru.org/ngoma/" target="_blank">https://sekuru.org/ngoma/</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désœuvré de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désœuvré de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Vlassenroot, Koen; Büscher, Karen (November 2009). "The City as Frontier: Urban Development and Identity Processes in Goma" (PDF). lse.ac.uk. London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 11. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/international-development/Assets/Documents/PDFs/csrc-working-papers-phase-two/wp61.2-city-as-frontier.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.lse.ac.uk/international-development/Assets/Documents/PDFs/csrc-working-papers-phase-two/wp61.2-city-as-frontier.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Vlassenroot, Koen; Büscher, Karen (November 2009). "The City as Frontier: Urban Development and Identity Processes in Goma" (PDF). lse.ac.uk. London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 11. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/international-development/Assets/Documents/PDFs/csrc-working-papers-phase-two/wp61.2-city-as-frontier.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.lse.ac.uk/international-development/Assets/Documents/PDFs/csrc-working-papers-phase-two/wp61.2-city-as-frontier.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Vlassenroot, Koen; Büscher, Karen (November 2009). "The City as Frontier: Urban Development and Identity Processes in Goma" (PDF). lse.ac.uk. London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 11. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/international-development/Assets/Documents/PDFs/csrc-working-papers-phase-two/wp61.2-city-as-frontier.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.lse.ac.uk/international-development/Assets/Documents/PDFs/csrc-working-papers-phase-two/wp61.2-city-as-frontier.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Hendriks, M.; Büscher, K. (2019). "Insecurity in Goma: Experiences, actors and responses" (PDF). Riftvalley.net. Nairobi, Kenya: Rift Valley Institute. p. 9. Retrieved 2024-02-15. <a href="https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf" target="_blank">https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Karumba, J. B. (2011). "De l'opportunité du développement du tourisme au nord Kivu. Cas de la ville de Goma" [The opportunity for tourism development in North Kivu. Case of the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTou-Goma). Retrieved 2024-02-16. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/14/8505/De-l-opportunite-du-developpement-du-tourisme-au-nord-Kivu-Cas-de-la-ville-de-Goma.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/14/8505/De-l-opportunite-du-developpement-du-tourisme-au-nord-Kivu-Cas-de-la-ville-de-Goma.html</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Mulumeoderhwa, D. M. (2012). "L'octroi des microcrédits par les institutions de microfinance et l'amélioration des conditions socio-économiques des ménages dans la ville de Goma" [The granting of microcredits by microfinance institutions and the improvement of the socio-economic conditions of households in the city of Goma] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 2024-02-07. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6704/m_Loctroi-des-microcredits-par-les-institutions-de-microfinance-et-lamelioration-des-condition7.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6704/m_Loctroi-des-microcredits-par-les-institutions-de-microfinance-et-lamelioration-des-condition7.html</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Mulumeoderhwa, D. M. (2012). "L'octroi des microcrédits par les institutions de microfinance et l'amélioration des conditions socio-économiques des ménages dans la ville de Goma" [The granting of microcredits by microfinance institutions and the improvement of the socio-economic conditions of households in the city of Goma] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 2024-02-07. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6704/m_Loctroi-des-microcredits-par-les-institutions-de-microfinance-et-lamelioration-des-condition7.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6704/m_Loctroi-des-microcredits-par-les-institutions-de-microfinance-et-lamelioration-des-condition7.html</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Mussa, Kanambe Juakaly (2012). "L'émergence du M23 au Nord-Kivu et son impact sur la situation socio-économique des habitants de la ville de Goma" [The emergence of the M23 in North Kivu and its impact on the socio-economic situation of the inhabitants of the city of Goma] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 2024-02-07. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/11/13/7719/m_L-emergence-du-M23-au-Nord-Kivu-et-son-impact-sur-la-situation-socio-economique-des-habitants-de-l7.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/11/13/7719/m_L-emergence-du-M23-au-Nord-Kivu-et-son-impact-sur-la-situation-socio-economique-des-habitants-de-l7.html</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Mulumeoderhwa, D. M. (2012). "L'octroi des microcrédits par les institutions de microfinance et l'amélioration des conditions socio-économiques des ménages dans la ville de Goma" [The granting of microcredits by microfinance institutions and the improvement of the socio-economic conditions of households in the city of Goma] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 2024-02-07. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6704/m_Loctroi-des-microcredits-par-les-institutions-de-microfinance-et-lamelioration-des-condition7.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6704/m_Loctroi-des-microcredits-par-les-institutions-de-microfinance-et-lamelioration-des-condition7.html</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Mafuko Nyandwi, Blaise; Kervyn, Matthieu; Habiyaremye, François Muhashy; Kervyn, François; Michellier, Caroline (2023-03-03). "Differences in volcanic risk perception among Goma's population before the Nyiragongo eruption of May 2021, Virunga volcanic province (DR Congo)" (PDF). Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 23 (2): 933–953. Bibcode:2023NHESS..23..933M. doi:10.5194/nhess-23-933-2023. <a href="https://biblio.vub.ac.be/vubirfiles/105590397/10.5194_nhess_23_933_2023.pdf" target="_blank">https://biblio.vub.ac.be/vubirfiles/105590397/10.5194_nhess_23_933_2023.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Mussa, Kanambe Juakaly (2012). "L'émergence du M23 au Nord-Kivu et son impact sur la situation socio-économique des habitants de la ville de Goma" [The emergence of the M23 in North Kivu and its impact on the socio-economic situation of the inhabitants of the city of Goma] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 2024-02-07. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/11/13/7719/m_L-emergence-du-M23-au-Nord-Kivu-et-son-impact-sur-la-situation-socio-economique-des-habitants-de-l7.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/11/13/7719/m_L-emergence-du-M23-au-Nord-Kivu-et-son-impact-sur-la-situation-socio-economique-des-habitants-de-l7.html</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Buchekabiri, Ephrem Chiruza (2013). "Analyse de la population de la ville de goma sur les programmes de la radio television communautaire Tayna Â« rtct Â» 2011–2012" [Analysis of the population of the city of Goma on the programs of the community radio television Tayna “rtct” 2011–2012] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université du CEPROMAD. Retrieved 7 February 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Buchekabiri, Ephrem Chiruza (2013). "Analyse de la population de la ville de goma sur les programmes de la radio television communautaire Tayna Â« rtct Â» 2011–2012" [Analysis of the population of the city of Goma on the programs of the community radio television Tayna “rtct” 2011–2012] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université du CEPROMAD. Retrieved 7 February 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Buchekabiri, Ephrem Chiruza (2013). "Analyse de la population de la ville de goma sur les programmes de la radio television communautaire Tayna Â« rtct Â» 2011–2012" [Analysis of the population of the city of Goma on the programs of the community radio television Tayna “rtct” 2011–2012] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université du CEPROMAD. Retrieved 7 February 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Buchekabiri, Ephrem Chiruza (2013). "Analyse de la population de la ville de goma sur les programmes de la radio television communautaire Tayna Â« rtct Â» 2011–2012" [Analysis of the population of the city of Goma on the programs of the community radio television Tayna “rtct” 2011–2012] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université du CEPROMAD. Retrieved 7 February 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">"Climate: Goma – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table". Climate-Data.org. Retrieved 4 November 2013. <a href="http://en.climate-data.org/location/1074/" target="_blank">http://en.climate-data.org/location/1074/</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">"Climate: Goma – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table". Climate-Data.org. Retrieved 4 November 2013. <a href="http://en.climate-data.org/location/1074/" target="_blank">http://en.climate-data.org/location/1074/</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">"Goma Climate and Weather Averages, Congo-Kinshasa". Weather2Travel. Retrieved 4 November 2013. <a href="http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/congo-kinshasa/goma.php" target="_blank">http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/congo-kinshasa/goma.php</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Kakozi, Willy Missumba; Katembo, Barry; Mazirane, Pierrot; Lukusa, Patricia Mishika; Baluntu, Edo; Makombe, Espe ́rance; Bahire, Claudine Munyatwari; Murabazi, Justin; Mukuku, Olivier (2022). "Determinants of knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices for COVID-19 infection in Goma, DRC". Syncsci.com. Others: Zacharie Kibendelwa Tsongo, Stanis Okitotsho Wembonyama. Retrieved 7 February 2024. <a href="https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750" target="_blank">https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Revue de l'urbanisation en République démocratique du Congo: Des villes productives et inclusives pour l'émergence de la République démocratique du Congo (in French). NW, Washington, D.C.: World Bank Publications. 2018. ISBN 978-1-4648-1206-4. <a href="978-1-4648-1206-4" target="_blank">978-1-4648-1206-4</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Kakozi, Willy Missumba; Katembo, Barry; Mazirane, Pierrot; Lukusa, Patricia Mishika; Baluntu, Edo; Makombe, Espe ́rance; Bahire, Claudine Munyatwari; Murabazi, Justin; Mukuku, Olivier (2022). "Determinants of knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices for COVID-19 infection in Goma, DRC". Syncsci.com. Others: Zacharie Kibendelwa Tsongo, Stanis Okitotsho Wembonyama. Retrieved 7 February 2024. <a href="https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750" target="_blank">https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Buchekabiri, Ephrem Chiruza (2013). "Analyse de la population de la ville de goma sur les programmes de la radio television communautaire Tayna Â« rtct Â» 2011–2012" [Analysis of the population of the city of Goma on the programs of the community radio television Tayna “rtct” 2011–2012] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université du CEPROMAD. Retrieved 7 February 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire3.html</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:37">Binyenye, Emmanuel Baguhe. "Analyse de l'efficacité des actions de long mercy corps dans la ville de Goma-DRC" [Analysis of the effectiveness of long mercy corps actions in the city of Goma-DRC] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur d'Informatique et de Gestion de Goma (ISIG-Goma). Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/19/10493/m_Analyse-de-l-efficacite-des-actions-de-long-mercy-corps-dans-la-ville-de-Goma-drc11.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/19/10493/m_Analyse-de-l-efficacite-des-actions-de-long-mercy-corps-dans-la-ville-de-Goma-drc11.html</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Binyenye, Emmanuel Baguhe. "Analyse de l'efficacité des actions de long mercy corps dans la ville de Goma-DRC" [Analysis of the effectiveness of long mercy corps actions in the city of Goma-DRC] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur d'Informatique et de Gestion de Goma (ISIG-Goma). Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/19/10493/m_Analyse-de-l-efficacite-des-actions-de-long-mercy-corps-dans-la-ville-de-Goma-drc11.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/19/10493/m_Analyse-de-l-efficacite-des-actions-de-long-mercy-corps-dans-la-ville-de-Goma-drc11.html</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Binyenye, Emmanuel Baguhe. "Analyse de l'efficacité des actions de long mercy corps dans la ville de Goma-DRC" [Analysis of the effectiveness of long mercy corps actions in the city of Goma-DRC] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur d'Informatique et de Gestion de Goma (ISIG-Goma). Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/19/10493/m_Analyse-de-l-efficacite-des-actions-de-long-mercy-corps-dans-la-ville-de-Goma-drc11.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/19/10493/m_Analyse-de-l-efficacite-des-actions-de-long-mercy-corps-dans-la-ville-de-Goma-drc11.html</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:90">"Attacks against hutu refugees in camps on the Goma to Rutshuru road (North Kivu)". Mapping-report.org. Geneva, Switzerland, New York City, United States: DRC Mapping Exercise Report. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2024. <a href="https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-in-camps-on-the-goma-to-rutshuru-road-north-kivu/" target="_blank">https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-in-camps-on-the-goma-to-rutshuru-road-north-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">"Attacks against hutu refugees in camps on the Goma to Rutshuru road (North Kivu)". Mapping-report.org. Geneva, Switzerland, New York City, United States: DRC Mapping Exercise Report. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2024. <a href="https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-in-camps-on-the-goma-to-rutshuru-road-north-kivu/" target="_blank">https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-in-camps-on-the-goma-to-rutshuru-road-north-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">"Attacks against hutu refugees in camps on the Goma to Rutshuru road (North Kivu)". Mapping-report.org. Geneva, Switzerland, New York City, United States: DRC Mapping Exercise Report. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2024. <a href="https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-in-camps-on-the-goma-to-rutshuru-road-north-kivu/" target="_blank">https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-in-camps-on-the-goma-to-rutshuru-road-north-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">"Attacks against hutu refugees in camps on the Goma to Rutshuru road (North Kivu)". Mapping-report.org. Geneva, Switzerland, New York City, United States: DRC Mapping Exercise Report. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2024. <a href="https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-in-camps-on-the-goma-to-rutshuru-road-north-kivu/" target="_blank">https://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-in-camps-on-the-goma-to-rutshuru-road-north-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Usanov, Artur; Ridder, Marjolein de; Auping, Willem; Lingemann, Stephanie; Espinoza, Luis Tercero; Ericsson, Magnus; Farooki, Masuma; Sievers, Henrike; Liedtke, Maren (2013-06-05). Coltan, Congo and Conflict. Hague, Netherlands: The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. p. 36. ISBN 978-94-91040-81-8. <a href="978-94-91040-81-8" target="_blank">978-94-91040-81-8</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Scherrer, Christian P. (2001-11-30). Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa: Conflict Roots, Mass Violence, and Regional War. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 266. ISBN 978-0-313-01617-2. <a href="978-0-313-01617-2" target="_blank">978-0-313-01617-2</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Holmes, Georgina (2013-10-25). Women and War in Rwanda: Gender, Media and the Representation of Genocide. London, England, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-85772-317-8. <a href="978-0-85772-317-8" target="_blank">978-0-85772-317-8</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Ciment, James (2015-03-27). Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II. Thames, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom: Routledge. pp. 144–146. ISBN 978-1-317-47186-8. <a href="978-1-317-47186-8" target="_blank">978-1-317-47186-8</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Scherrer, Christian P. (2001-11-30). Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa: Conflict Roots, Mass Violence, and Regional War. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 266. ISBN 978-0-313-01617-2. <a href="978-0-313-01617-2" target="_blank">978-0-313-01617-2</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">"Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – North Kivu". Mapping-report.org. Geneva, Switzerland, New York City, United States: United Nations. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2024. <a href="https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-north-kivu/" target="_blank">https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-north-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">"Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – North Kivu". Mapping-report.org. Geneva, Switzerland, New York City, United States: United Nations. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2024. <a href="https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-north-kivu/" target="_blank">https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-north-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">"Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – North Kivu". Mapping-report.org. Geneva, Switzerland, New York City, United States: United Nations. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2024. <a href="https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-north-kivu/" target="_blank">https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-north-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">"Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – North Kivu". Mapping-report.org. Geneva, Switzerland, New York City, United States: United Nations. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2024. <a href="https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-north-kivu/" target="_blank">https://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-north-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">"Peace Agreements Digital Collection" (PDF). United States Institute of Peace. Washington, D.C., United States: United States Institute of Peace. September 23, 2002. Retrieved 2024-02-16.[dead link‍] <a href="https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/drc_rwanda_pa07302002.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/drc_rwanda_pa07302002.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Aktas, Tufan; Kavak, Gokhan (February 3, 2023). "Rwanda, Congo drifting toward war again as rebels surge anew". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2024-02-15. <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/rwanda-congo-drifting-toward-war-again-as-rebels-surge-anew/2805426" target="_blank">https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/rwanda-congo-drifting-toward-war-again-as-rebels-surge-anew/2805426</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">"Goma: vers le mixage entre FARDC et éléments de Laurent Nkunda" [Goma: towards the mix between FARDC and elements of Laurent Nkunda]. Radio Okapi (in French). 2007-01-05. Retrieved 2024-02-21. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/01/05/goma-vers-le-mixage-entre-fardc-et-elements-de-laurent-nkunda" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/01/05/goma-vers-le-mixage-entre-fardc-et-elements-de-laurent-nkunda</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">"Nord-Kivu : début de mixage des troupes de Nkunda et des FARDC" [North Kivu: start of mixing of Nkunda and FARDC troops]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2007-01-20. Retrieved 2024-02-21. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/01/20/nord-kivu-debut-de-mixage-des-troupes-de-nkunda-et-des-fardc" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/01/20/nord-kivu-debut-de-mixage-des-troupes-de-nkunda-et-des-fardc</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">"Human Rights Watch demande l'arrestation de Laurent Nkunda" [Human Rights Watch calls for the arrest of Laurent Nkunda]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2006-02-02. Retrieved 2024-02-21. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/02/02/human-rights-watch-demande-l%25e2%2580%2599arrestation-de-laurent-nkunda" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/02/02/human-rights-watch-demande-l%25e2%2580%2599arrestation-de-laurent-nkunda</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">"Human Rights Watch demande l'arrestation de Laurent Nkunda" [Human Rights Watch calls for the arrest of Laurent Nkunda]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2006-02-02. Retrieved 2024-02-21. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/02/02/human-rights-watch-demande-l%25e2%2580%2599arrestation-de-laurent-nkunda" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/02/02/human-rights-watch-demande-l%25e2%2580%2599arrestation-de-laurent-nkunda</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">"Sud-Kivu : 6 officiers FARDC refoulés de Bukavu" [South Kivu: 6 FARDC officers pushed back from Bukavu]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2007-02-28. Retrieved 2024-02-21. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/02/28/sud-kivu-6-officiers-fardc-refoules-de-bukavu" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/02/28/sud-kivu-6-officiers-fardc-refoules-de-bukavu</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">"Human Rights Watch demande l'arrestation de Laurent Nkunda" [Human Rights Watch calls for the arrest of Laurent Nkunda]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2006-02-02. Retrieved 2024-02-21. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/02/02/human-rights-watch-demande-l%25e2%2580%2599arrestation-de-laurent-nkunda" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/02/02/human-rights-watch-demande-l%25e2%2580%2599arrestation-de-laurent-nkunda</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">"Nord-Kivu : les Fardc reprennent deux des trois localités occupées par Laurent Nkunda" [North Kivu: the Fardc retake two of the three localities occupied by Laurent Nkunda]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 6 December 2006. Retrieved 21 February 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/12/06/nord-kivu-les-fardc-reprennent-deux-des-trois-localits-occupes-par-laurent-nkunda" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/12/06/nord-kivu-les-fardc-reprennent-deux-des-trois-localits-occupes-par-laurent-nkunda</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">"Nord-Kivu : les Fardc reprennent deux des trois localités occupées par Laurent Nkunda" [North Kivu: the Fardc retake two of the three localities occupied by Laurent Nkunda]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 6 December 2006. Retrieved 21 February 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/12/06/nord-kivu-les-fardc-reprennent-deux-des-trois-localits-occupes-par-laurent-nkunda" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/12/06/nord-kivu-les-fardc-reprennent-deux-des-trois-localits-occupes-par-laurent-nkunda</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">"Affrontements de Sake, près de Goma : 3 morts et plus de 40 blessés" [Clashes in Sake, near Goma: 3 dead and more than 40 injured]. Radio Okapi (in French). 26 November 2006. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/11/26/affrontements-de-sake-prs-de-goma-3-morts-et-plus-de-40-blesss" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/11/26/affrontements-de-sake-prs-de-goma-3-morts-et-plus-de-40-blesss</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">"Nord-Kivu: plus de 80 000 déplacés de guerre" [North Kivu: more than 80,000 war displaced]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 20 December 2006. Retrieved 21 February 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/12/20/nord-kivu-plus-de-80-000-dplacs-de-guerre" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2006/12/20/nord-kivu-plus-de-80-000-dplacs-de-guerre</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">"Prise en charge des femmes victimes de viols à Goma" [Support for women victims of rape in Goma]. Radio Okapi (in French). 2 February 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/emissions-2/2007/02/02/prise-en-charge-des-femmes-victimes-de-viols-a-goma" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/emissions-2/2007/02/02/prise-en-charge-des-femmes-victimes-de-viols-a-goma</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">"Goma: 14 Rwandais aux arrêts" [Goma: 14 Rwandans arrested]. Radio Okapi (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 3 June 2007. Retrieved 21 February 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/06/03/goma-14-rwandais-aux-arrets" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/06/03/goma-14-rwandais-aux-arrets</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">"Goma: la France promet 2 millions d'euros pour les déplacés de guerre" [Goma: France promises 2 million euros for war displaced persons]. Radio Okapi (in French). 31 May 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/actualite/2007/05/31/goma-la-france-promet-2-millions-d%25e2%2580%2599euros-pour-les-deplaces-de-guerre" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/actualite/2007/05/31/goma-la-france-promet-2-millions-d%25e2%2580%2599euros-pour-les-deplaces-de-guerre</a> <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">"De Goma, William Swing appelle les troupes mixées à aller au brassage" [From Goma, William Swing calls on the mixed troops to go to the brewing]. Radio Okapi (in French). 28 June 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/06/28/de-goma-william-swing-appelle-les-troupes-mixees-a-aller-au-brassage" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/06/28/de-goma-william-swing-appelle-les-troupes-mixees-a-aller-au-brassage</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">"Goma: un bandit rwandais tué sur le lac Kivu" [Goma: Rwandan bandit killed on Lake Kivu]. Radio Okapi (in French). 19 July 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/07/19/goma-un-bandit-rwandais-tue-sur-le-lac-kivu" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/07/19/goma-un-bandit-rwandais-tue-sur-le-lac-kivu</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">"Goma: un bandit rwandais tué sur le lac Kivu" [Goma: Rwandan bandit killed on Lake Kivu]. Radio Okapi (in French). 19 July 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/07/19/goma-un-bandit-rwandais-tue-sur-le-lac-kivu" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/07/19/goma-un-bandit-rwandais-tue-sur-le-lac-kivu</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">"Sake: le cessez-le-feu respecté" [Sake: the ceasefire respected]. Radio Okapi (in French). 7 September 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/07/sake-le-cessez-le-feu-respecte" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/07/sake-le-cessez-le-feu-respecte</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:122">"Sake: le cessez-le-feu respecté" [Sake: the ceasefire respected]. Radio Okapi (in French). 7 September 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/07/sake-le-cessez-le-feu-respecte" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/07/sake-le-cessez-le-feu-respecte</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">"Encore des affrontements à Masisi" [More clashes in Masisi]. Radio Okapi (in French). 13 September 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/13/encore-des-affrontements-a-masisi" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/13/encore-des-affrontements-a-masisi</a> <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:124">"Rubare: encore 9 corps découverts dans des fosses communes" [Rubare: 9 more bodies discovered in mass graves]. Radio Okapi (in French). 18 September 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/18/rubare-encore-9-corps-decouverts-dans-des-fosses-communes" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/18/rubare-encore-9-corps-decouverts-dans-des-fosses-communes</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:125">"Kisharo: 2 corps retrouvés dans le bureau du chef de poste" [Kisharo: 2 bodies found in the station chief's office]. Radio Okapi (in French). 18 September 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/18/kisharo-2-corps-retrouves-dans-le-bureau-du-chef-de-poste" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/09/18/kisharo-2-corps-retrouves-dans-le-bureau-du-chef-de-poste</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">"U.N. says recent Congo fighting uproots 200,000". CNN. 27 October 2008. Archived from the original on October 29, 2008. Retrieved 28 October 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081029213801/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/10/24/Congo.displaced.ap/index.html?iref=newssearch" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20081029213801/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/10/24/Congo.displaced.ap/index.html?iref=newssearch</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">"Congolese rebels seize Goma, take airport." Melanie Goubyrukmini Callimachi, Bloomberg BusinessWeek, November 20, 2012. Retrieved 20 November 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121221033507/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012-11-20/congolese-rebels-penetrate-goma-take-airport" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20121221033507/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2012-11-20/congolese-rebels-penetrate-goma-take-airport</a> <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:128">Hendriks, Maarten; Büscher, Karen (August 2019). "Insecurity in Goma: Experiences, actors and responses" (PDF). Riftvalley.net. Nairobi, Kenya: Rift Valley Institute. p. 17. Retrieved 21 February 2024. <a href="https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf" target="_blank">https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:129">Pete Jones; Jerome Delay (2012). "Congo Violence: Tens of Thousands of Civilians Flee Goma". Huffington Post. Retrieved 23 November 2012. <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/23/congo-violence-goma_n_2177612.html" target="_blank">http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/23/congo-violence-goma_n_2177612.html</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">"RDC : MSF demande une augmentation rapide et concrète de l'aide humanitaire face à une crise d'ampleur historique au Nord-Kivu" [DRC: MSF calls for a rapid and concrete increase in humanitarian aid in the face of a crisis of historic proportions in North Kivu]. www.msf.fr (in French). Paris, France. June 21, 2023. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://www.msf.fr/communiques-presse/rdc-msf-demande-une-augmentation-rapide-et-concrete-de-l-aide-humanitaire-face-a-une-crise-d-ampleur-historique-au-nord-kivu" target="_blank">https://www.msf.fr/communiques-presse/rdc-msf-demande-une-augmentation-rapide-et-concrete-de-l-aide-humanitaire-face-a-une-crise-d-ampleur-historique-au-nord-kivu</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">"RDC : MSF demande une augmentation rapide et concrète de l'aide humanitaire face à une crise d'ampleur historique au Nord-Kivu" [DRC: MSF calls for a rapid and concrete increase in humanitarian aid in the face of a crisis of historic proportions in North Kivu]. www.msf.fr (in French). Paris, France. June 21, 2023. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://www.msf.fr/communiques-presse/rdc-msf-demande-une-augmentation-rapide-et-concrete-de-l-aide-humanitaire-face-a-une-crise-d-ampleur-historique-au-nord-kivu" target="_blank">https://www.msf.fr/communiques-presse/rdc-msf-demande-une-augmentation-rapide-et-concrete-de-l-aide-humanitaire-face-a-une-crise-d-ampleur-historique-au-nord-kivu</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">"RDC : MSF demande une augmentation rapide et concrète de l'aide humanitaire face à une crise d'ampleur historique au Nord-Kivu" [DRC: MSF calls for a rapid and concrete increase in humanitarian aid in the face of a crisis of historic proportions in North Kivu]. www.msf.fr (in French). Paris, France. June 21, 2023. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://www.msf.fr/communiques-presse/rdc-msf-demande-une-augmentation-rapide-et-concrete-de-l-aide-humanitaire-face-a-une-crise-d-ampleur-historique-au-nord-kivu" target="_blank">https://www.msf.fr/communiques-presse/rdc-msf-demande-une-augmentation-rapide-et-concrete-de-l-aide-humanitaire-face-a-une-crise-d-ampleur-historique-au-nord-kivu</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:133">"Évaluation Rapide de Crise M23: Rapport 15, Province du Nord Kivu, 1 mars 2024 – Democratic Republic of the Congo" [M23 Rapid Crisis Assessment: Report 15, North Kivu Province, March 1, 2024]. reliefweb.int. New York City, New York, United States. 2024-03-01. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/evaluation-rapide-de-crise-m23-rapport-15-province-du-nord-kivu-1-mars-2024" target="_blank">https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/evaluation-rapide-de-crise-m23-rapport-15-province-du-nord-kivu-1-mars-2024</a> <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:134">"Évaluation Rapide de Crise M23: Rapport 15, Province du Nord Kivu, 1 mars 2024 – Democratic Republic of the Congo" [M23 Rapid Crisis Assessment: Report 15, North Kivu Province, March 1, 2024]. reliefweb.int. New York City, New York, United States. 2024-03-01. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/evaluation-rapide-de-crise-m23-rapport-15-province-du-nord-kivu-1-mars-2024" target="_blank">https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/evaluation-rapide-de-crise-m23-rapport-15-province-du-nord-kivu-1-mars-2024</a> <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:135">Felix, Bate (February 12, 2024). Choy, Marguerita (ed.). "South Africa to deploy 2,900 troops to fight armed groups in eastern Congo". Reuters.com. London, England. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/south-africa-deploy-2900-troops-fight-armed-groups-eastern-congo-2024-02-12/" target="_blank">https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/south-africa-deploy-2900-troops-fight-armed-groups-eastern-congo-2024-02-12/</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:136">Peyton, Nellie (February 15, 2024). Russell, Ros (ed.). "South African military: 2 soldiers killed, 3 wounded on Congo mission". Reuters.com. (ed.). Oatis, Jonathan. London, England. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/south-african-military-2-soldiers-killed-3-wounded-congo-mission-2024-02-15/" target="_blank">https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/south-african-military-2-soldiers-killed-3-wounded-congo-mission-2024-02-15/</a> <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:137">"Évaluation Rapide de Crise M23: Rapport 15, Province du Nord Kivu, 1 mars 2024 – Democratic Republic of the Congo" [M23 Rapid Crisis Assessment: Report 15, North Kivu Province, March 1, 2024]. reliefweb.int. New York City, New York, United States. 2024-03-01. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/evaluation-rapide-de-crise-m23-rapport-15-province-du-nord-kivu-1-mars-2024" target="_blank">https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/evaluation-rapide-de-crise-m23-rapport-15-province-du-nord-kivu-1-mars-2024</a> <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:138">"Leader of Congo's rebel alliance says they have taken Goma". Reuters. 26 January 2025. Retrieved 28 January 2025. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/un-peacekeeper-death-toll-eastern-congo-rises-six-2025-01-26/?utm_medium=Social&utm_source=twitter" target="_blank">https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/un-peacekeeper-death-toll-eastern-congo-rises-six-2025-01-26/?utm_medium=Social&utm_source=twitter</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:139">"Nearly 3,000 people killed after rebels seize key city in DR Congo, UN says". CNN. 6 February 2025. <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2025/02/06/africa/dr-congo-goma-violence-deaths-intl-hnk/index.html" target="_blank">https://edition.cnn.com/2025/02/06/africa/dr-congo-goma-violence-deaths-intl-hnk/index.html</a> <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:140">"More than 150 female inmates raped and burned to death during Goma jailbreak in DRC, UN says". CNN. 7 February 2025. <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2025/02/06/africa/female-inmates-raped-killed-goma-jailbreak-intl/index.html" target="_blank">https://edition.cnn.com/2025/02/06/africa/female-inmates-raped-killed-goma-jailbreak-intl/index.html</a> <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:141">Bastmeijer, Joost; Townsend, Mark; Houttuin, Saskia (2025-02-05). "Hundreds of women raped and burned to death after Goma prison set on fire". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2025-02-05. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/feb/05/democratic-republic-congo-goma-women-raped-burned-death-prison-m23-rebels-rwanda" target="_blank">https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/feb/05/democratic-republic-congo-goma-women-raped-burned-death-prison-m23-rebels-rwanda</a> <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:142">"En RDC, une jeune femme sur dix victime de viol durant les cinq derniers mois dans les camps de déplacés de Goma" [In the DRC, one in ten young women has been raped in the last five months in the displaced persons camps in Goma]. Le Monde (in French). Paris, France. 6 August 2024. Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2024/08/06/en-rdc-une-jeune-femme-sur-dix-victime-de-viol-durant-les-cinq-derniers-mois-dans-les-camps-de-deplaces-de-goma_6270470_3212.html" target="_blank">https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2024/08/06/en-rdc-une-jeune-femme-sur-dix-victime-de-viol-durant-les-cinq-derniers-mois-dans-les-camps-de-deplaces-de-goma_6270470_3212.html</a> <a href="#fnref:142" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:143">Blanchard, Sandrine (1 October 2024). "Une femme sur dix est victime de viol dans l'est de la RDC" [One in ten women are victims of rape in eastern DRC]. DW News (in French). Bonn, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://www.dw.com/fr/rdc-violences-sexuelles-d%C3%A9plac%C3%A9s-camps-goma-appel-msf/a-70378591" target="_blank">https://www.dw.com/fr/rdc-violences-sexuelles-d%C3%A9plac%C3%A9s-camps-goma-appel-msf/a-70378591</a> <a href="#fnref:143" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:144">"Violences sexuelles en RDC: 10% des femmes déplacées dans les camps de Goma déclarent avoir été violées" [Sexual violence in the DRC: 10% of displaced women in Goma camps report having been raped]. Actualite.cd (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 6 August 2024. Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://actualite.cd/2024/08/06/violences-sexuelles-en-rdc-10-des-femmes-deplacees-dans-les-camps-de-goma-declarent" target="_blank">https://actualite.cd/2024/08/06/violences-sexuelles-en-rdc-10-des-femmes-deplacees-dans-les-camps-de-goma-declarent</a> <a href="#fnref:144" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:147">Kiakuvue, Yannick Nkiambi; Kanyere, Furaha Siwatula; Mukubu, Doris Mwila; Ruhindiza, Bienvenu Mukuku; Mukuku, Olivier (27 June 2024). "Sexual violence among female survivors in Goma, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: epidemiology, clinical features, and circumstances of occurrence". Scientific Reports. 14 (1): 14863. Bibcode:2024NatSR..1414863K. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-65412-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 11211468. PMID 38937549. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11211468" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11211468</a> <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:148">Kiakuvue, Yannick Nkiambi; Kanyere, Furaha Siwatula; Mukubu, Doris Mwila; Ruhindiza, Bienvenu Mukuku; Mukuku, Olivier (27 June 2024). "Sexual violence among female survivors in Goma, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: epidemiology, clinical features, and circumstances of occurrence". Scientific Reports. 14 (1): 14863. Bibcode:2024NatSR..1414863K. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-65412-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 11211468. PMID 38937549. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11211468" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11211468</a> <a href="#fnref:148" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:149">"MSF reports unprecedented number of sexual violence cases in DR Congo". Médecins Sans Frontières. 30 September 2024. Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/latest/msf-reports-unprecedented-number-sexual-violence-cases-dr-congo#:~:text=The%20report%20outlines%20that,in%20admissions.&text=than%20two%20patients%20every,in%20admissions.&text=projects%20set%20up%20by,in%20admissions.&text=In%20the%20three%20preceding,in%20admissions" target="_blank">https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/latest/msf-reports-unprecedented-number-sexual-violence-cases-dr-congo#:~:text=The%20report%20outlines%20that,in%20admissions.&text=than%20two%20patients%20every,in%20admissions.&text=projects%20set%20up%20by,in%20admissions.&text=In%20the%20three%20preceding,in%20admissions</a> <a href="#fnref:149" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:152">Kiakuvue, Yannick Nkiambi; Kanyere, Furaha Siwatula; Mukubu, Doris Mwila; Ruhindiza, Bienvenu Mukuku; Mukuku, Olivier (27 June 2024). "Sexual violence among female survivors in Goma, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: epidemiology, clinical features, and circumstances of occurrence". Scientific Reports. 14 (1): 14863. Bibcode:2024NatSR..1414863K. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-65412-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 11211468. PMID 38937549. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11211468" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11211468</a> <a href="#fnref:152" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:153">Kiakuvue, Yannick Nkiambi; Kanyere, Furaha Siwatula; Mukubu, Doris Mwila; Ruhindiza, Bienvenu Mukuku; Mukuku, Olivier (27 June 2024). "Sexual violence among female survivors in Goma, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: epidemiology, clinical features, and circumstances of occurrence". Scientific Reports. 14 (1): 14863. Bibcode:2024NatSR..1414863K. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-65412-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 11211468. PMID 38937549. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11211468" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11211468</a> <a href="#fnref:153" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:202">Kakozi, Willy Missumba; Katembo, Barry; Mazirane, Pierrot; Lukusa, Patricia Mishika; Baluntu, Edo; Makombe, Espérance; Bahire, Claudine Munyatwari; Murabazi, Justin; Mukuku, Olivier; Kibendelwa, Zacharie Tsongo; Wembonyama, Okitotsho Stanislas (December 2022). "Determinants of knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices for COVID-19 infection in Goma, DRC". Paya Lebar, Singapore: SyncSci Publishing address. p. 242 (1 of 11). Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750/" target="_blank">https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750/</a> <a href="#fnref:202" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:203">Kakozi, Willy Missumba; Katembo, Barry; Mazirane, Pierrot; Lukusa, Patricia Mishika; Baluntu, Edo; Makombe, Espérance; Bahire, Claudine Munyatwari; Murabazi, Justin; Mukuku, Olivier; Kibendelwa, Zacharie Tsongo; Wembonyama, Okitotsho Stanislas (December 2022). "Determinants of knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices for COVID-19 infection in Goma, DRC". Paya Lebar, Singapore: SyncSci Publishing address. p. 242 (1 of 11). Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750/" target="_blank">https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750/</a> <a href="#fnref:203" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:204">Kakozi, Willy Missumba; Katembo, Barry; Mazirane, Pierrot; Lukusa, Patricia Mishika; Baluntu, Edo; Makombe, Espérance; Bahire, Claudine Munyatwari; Murabazi, Justin; Mukuku, Olivier; Kibendelwa, Zacharie Tsongo; Wembonyama, Okitotsho Stanislas (December 2022). "Determinants of knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices for COVID-19 infection in Goma, DRC". Paya Lebar, Singapore: SyncSci Publishing address. p. 242 (1 of 11). Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750/" target="_blank">https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750/</a> <a href="#fnref:204" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:205">Kakozi, Willy Missumba; Katembo, Barry; Mazirane, Pierrot; Lukusa, Patricia Mishika; Baluntu, Edo; Makombe, Espérance; Bahire, Claudine Munyatwari; Murabazi, Justin; Mukuku, Olivier; Kibendelwa, Zacharie Tsongo; Wembonyama, Okitotsho Stanislas (December 2022). "Determinants of knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices for COVID-19 infection in Goma, DRC". Paya Lebar, Singapore: SyncSci Publishing address. p. 242 (1 of 11). Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750/" target="_blank">https://www.syncsci.com/journal/AHB/article/download/AHB.2023.01.001/750/</a> <a href="#fnref:205" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:206">"La 8ème édition du Festival Amani (juin 2021) est annulée" [The 8th edition of the Amani Festival (June 2021) is canceled]. Amanifestival.com. Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 21 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2024. <a href="https://www.amanifestival.com/fr/actualite/annulation-de-ledition-2021-juin" target="_blank">https://www.amanifestival.com/fr/actualite/annulation-de-ledition-2021-juin</a> <a href="#fnref:206" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:207">Kuzamba, Emmanuel (21 May 2021). "RDC: la 8ème édition du festival Amani annulée suite à l'état de siège et la situation sécuritaire à Goma" [DRC: the 8th edition of the Amani festival canceled following the state of siege and the security situation in Goma]. Actualite.cd (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Retrieved 14 May 2024. <a href="https://actualite.cd/2021/05/21/rdc-la-8eme-edition-du-festival-amani-annulee-suite-letat-de-siege-et-la-situation" target="_blank">https://actualite.cd/2021/05/21/rdc-la-8eme-edition-du-festival-amani-annulee-suite-letat-de-siege-et-la-situation</a> <a href="#fnref:207" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:208">"La 8ème édition du Festival Amani prévue du 4 au 6 février 2022 à Goma dans la province du Nord-Kivu" [The 8th edition of the Amani Festival scheduled for February 4 to 6, 2022 in Goma in the province of North Kivu]. ACP (in French). 25 October 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2024. <a href="https://acp.cd/culture/la-8emeedition-du-festival-amani-prevue-du-4-au-6-fevrier-2022-a-goma-dans-la-province-du-nord-kivu/" target="_blank">https://acp.cd/culture/la-8emeedition-du-festival-amani-prevue-du-4-au-6-fevrier-2022-a-goma-dans-la-province-du-nord-kivu/</a> <a href="#fnref:208" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:210">Batana, Yele; Jarotschkin, Alexandra; Vilpoux, Mervy Ever Viboudoulou (15 November 2021). "Reversing the adverse effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Democratic Republic of Congo". Worldbank.org/en. Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/africacan/reversing-adverse-effects-covid-19-pandemic-democratic-republic-congo#:~:text=Making%20matters%20worse%20for,household%20well%2Dbeing.&text=to%20inflation%20in%20the,household%20well%2Dbeing.&text=against%204.6%25%20for%20the,household%20well%2Dbeing.&text=%2816.6%25%29%20and%20Goma%20%2816.4%25%29%2C,household%20well%2Dbeing" target="_blank">https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/africacan/reversing-adverse-effects-covid-19-pandemic-democratic-republic-congo#:~:text=Making%20matters%20worse%20for,household%20well%2Dbeing.&text=to%20inflation%20in%20the,household%20well%2Dbeing.&text=against%204.6%25%20for%20the,household%20well%2Dbeing.&text=%2816.6%25%29%20and%20Goma%20%2816.4%25%29%2C,household%20well%2Dbeing</a> <a href="#fnref:210" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:211">"La RDC n'a pas enregistré de cas de COVID-19 (Officiel)" [DRC has not recorded any cases of COVID-19 (Official)]. Radio Okapi (in French). 3 July 2024. Retrieved 26 October 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/2024/07/03/actualite/sante/la-rdc-na-pas-enregistre-de-cas-de-covid-19-officiel" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/2024/07/03/actualite/sante/la-rdc-na-pas-enregistre-de-cas-de-covid-19-officiel</a> <a href="#fnref:211" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:214">Mafuko Nyandwi, Blaise; Kervyn, Matthieu; Habiyaremye, François Muhashy; Kervyn, François; Michellier, Caroline (2023-03-03). "Differences in volcanic risk perception among Goma's population before the Nyiragongo eruption of May 2021, Virunga volcanic province (DR Congo)" (PDF). Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 23 (2): 933–953. Bibcode:2023NHESS..23..933M. doi:10.5194/nhess-23-933-2023. <a href="https://biblio.vub.ac.be/vubirfiles/105590397/10.5194_nhess_23_933_2023.pdf" target="_blank">https://biblio.vub.ac.be/vubirfiles/105590397/10.5194_nhess_23_933_2023.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:214" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:217">Google Earth has high resolution photographs showing the affected part of the airport at coordinates −1.658, 29.237. Retrieved 3 September 2007. <a href="http://earth.google.com" target="_blank">http://earth.google.com</a> <a href="#fnref:217" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:219">Knowles, H. (May 2021). "Congo volcano erupts for first time in years, sending people fleeing from major city". Washington Post. Retrieved May 22, 2021. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/05/22/congo-volcano-eruption-nyiragongo/?outputType=amp" target="_blank">https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/05/22/congo-volcano-eruption-nyiragongo/?outputType=amp</a> <a href="#fnref:219" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:251">"Festival Amani (Goma RDC): Jazz Music". Amanifestival.com. Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. January 2024. Retrieved 13 February 2024. <a href="https://amanifestival.com/fr/artiste/jazz-music-2" target="_blank">https://amanifestival.com/fr/artiste/jazz-music-2</a> <a href="#fnref:251" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:254">"Mista Faba". Music In Africa (in French). 25 March 2015. Retrieved 13 February 2024. <a href="https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/directory/mista-faba" target="_blank">https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/directory/mista-faba</a> <a href="#fnref:254" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:259">"Goma: 120 personnes participent à la course de vélos en bois, "Tshukudu"" [Goma: 120 people take part in the wooden bicycle race, "Tshukudu"]. Radio Okapi (in French). 16 March 2013. Retrieved 4 October 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/sport/2013/03/16/goma-120-personnes-participent-la-course-de-velos-en-bois-tshukudu" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/sport/2013/03/16/goma-120-personnes-participent-la-course-de-velos-en-bois-tshukudu</a> <a href="#fnref:259" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:261">Carleton, Natasha (5 April 2013). "Tshukudu – La petite reine du Congo a sa classique" [Tshukudu – The little queen of Congo has her classic]. Le Monde (in French). Paris, France. Retrieved 4 October 2024. <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/blog/contre-pied/2013/04/05/tshukudu-la-petite-reine-du-congo-a-sa-classique/" target="_blank">https://www.lemonde.fr/blog/contre-pied/2013/04/05/tshukudu-la-petite-reine-du-congo-a-sa-classique/</a> <a href="#fnref:261" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:292">Buchekabiri, Ephrem Chiruza (2013). "Analyse de la population de la ville de goma sur les programmes de la radio television communautaire Tayna Â« rtct Â» 2011–2012" [Analysis of the population of the city of Goma on the programs of the community radio television Tayna "rtct" 2011–2012] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université du CEPROMAD. Retrieved 13 February 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire4.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9500/m_Analyse-de-la-population-de-la-ville-de-goma-sur-les-programmes-de-la-radio-television-communautaire4.html</a> <a href="#fnref:292" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:293">Babonangenda, Laetitia (2016). "Developpement du capital humain et croissance des petites et moyennes entreprises: cas de la ville de Goma de 2013–2015" [Human capital development and growth of small and medium-sized enterprises: the case of the city of Goma from 2013–2015] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Free University of the Great Lakes Countries. Retrieved 22 January 2025. <a href="https://www.africmemoire.com/part.6-chapitre-deuxieme-le-secteur-des-pme-dans-la-ville-de-goma-122.html" target="_blank">https://www.africmemoire.com/part.6-chapitre-deuxieme-le-secteur-des-pme-dans-la-ville-de-goma-122.html</a> <a href="#fnref:293" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:294">Enyimo, Martin (13 September 2023). "Linafoot/Ligue 1: Dauphin noir désillusionne V.Club, Mazembe et Lupopo gagnent" [Linafoot/Ligue 1: Black Dolphin disillusions V.Club, Mazembe and Lupopo win]. Adiac-congo.com. Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo. Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/linafootligue-1-dauphin-noir-desillusionne-vclub-mazembe-et-lupopo-gagnent-151459" target="_blank">https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/linafootligue-1-dauphin-noir-desillusionne-vclub-mazembe-et-lupopo-gagnent-151459</a> <a href="#fnref:294" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:295">"Football – LINAFOOT: DCMP met fin à l'invincibilité des Dauphins Noirs" [Football – LINAFOOT: DCMP ends the invincibility of the Dauphins Noirs]. l'Actualité de la RDC / Le Media indépendant 24h/24 et 7sur7 (in French). 21 September 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://linterview.cd/football-linafoot-dcmp-met-fin-a-linvincibilite-de-dauphin-noir/" target="_blank">https://linterview.cd/football-linafoot-dcmp-met-fin-a-linvincibilite-de-dauphin-noir/</a> <a href="#fnref:295" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:297">Muhima, Georges Ben (19 February 2024). "Ligue2: DC Virunga Vs AS Nyuki, l'histoire du match aller s'est répétée" [Ligue2: DC Virunga Vs AS Nyuki, the history of the first leg was repeated]. Kivu Morning Post (in French). Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://kivumorningpost.cd/2024/02/19/ligue2-dc-virunga-vs-as-nyuki-lhistoire-du-match-aller-sest-repetee/" target="_blank">https://kivumorningpost.cd/2024/02/19/ligue2-dc-virunga-vs-as-nyuki-lhistoire-du-match-aller-sest-repetee/</a> <a href="#fnref:297" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:298">Muhima, Richard (17 November 2021). "Foot-Ligue 2: incroyable record battu par l'A.S Kabasha de Goma" [Football League 2: incredible record broken by AS Kabasha of Goma]. Le Renouveau (in French). Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://le-renouveau.net/2021/11/17/foot-ligue-2-incroyable-record-battu-par-la-s-kabasha-de-goma/" target="_blank">https://le-renouveau.net/2021/11/17/foot-ligue-2-incroyable-record-battu-par-la-s-kabasha-de-goma/</a> <a href="#fnref:298" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:299">Mbala, Cedrick Sadiki (5 November 2020). "Ligue II (RDC) crise au sein de l'AS Kabasha: 23 joueurs signent une pétition demandant le départ de leur comité" [Ligue II (DRC) crisis within AS Kabasha: 23 players sign a petition demanding the departure of their committee]. Africasport.org (in French). Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://africasport.org/ligue-ii-rdc-crise-au-sein-de-las-kabasha-23-joueurs-signent-une-petition-demandant-le-depart-de-leur-comite/" target="_blank">https://africasport.org/ligue-ii-rdc-crise-au-sein-de-las-kabasha-23-joueurs-signent-une-petition-demandant-le-depart-de-leur-comite/</a> <a href="#fnref:299" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:300">Muhima, Richard. "Une grande première pour le stade de l'Unité de Goma, bonne nouvelle!" [A big first for the Unity stadium in Goma, good news!]. Totalementactus.net (in French). Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://totalementactus.net/une-grande-premiere-pour-le-stade-de-lunite-de-goma-bonne-nouvelle/" target="_blank">https://totalementactus.net/une-grande-premiere-pour-le-stade-de-lunite-de-goma-bonne-nouvelle/</a> <a href="#fnref:300" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:302">Kamalebo, Christian (27 February 2016). "GOMA: Le Stade de l'Unité change son tapis noir pour un synthétique" [GOMA: The Unity Stadium changes its black carpet for a synthetic one]. Leopardsfoot.com (in French). Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://www.leopardsfoot.com/goma-le-stade-de-lunite-change-son-tapis-noir-pour-un-synthetique/" target="_blank">https://www.leopardsfoot.com/goma-le-stade-de-lunite-change-son-tapis-noir-pour-un-synthetique/</a> <a href="#fnref:302" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:303">SEKE, Henock (19 March 2023). "Goma, le stade de Mungunga bientôt opérationnel !" [Goma, Mungunga stadium soon to be operational!]. Leopardsfoot.com (in French). Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://www.leopardsfoot.com/goma-le-stade-de-mungunga-bientot-operationnel/" target="_blank">https://www.leopardsfoot.com/goma-le-stade-de-mungunga-bientot-operationnel/</a> <a href="#fnref:303" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:304">"RDC: les villes de Goma et de Bunia satisfaites de l'acquisition des infrastructures financées par la SICOMINES S.A." [DRC: Cities of Goma and Bunia satisfied with acquisition of infrastructure financed by SICOMINES SA]. Zoom-eco.net (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 6 September 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://zoom-eco.net/a-la-une/rdc-les-villes-de-goma-et-de-bunia-satisfaites-de-lacquisition-des-infrastructures-financees-par-la-sicomines-s-a/" target="_blank">https://zoom-eco.net/a-la-une/rdc-les-villes-de-goma-et-de-bunia-satisfaites-de-lacquisition-des-infrastructures-financees-par-la-sicomines-s-a/</a> <a href="#fnref:304" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:308">"Goma: le sport au cœur de la célébration de la journée internationale des personnes vivant avec handicap" [Goma: sport at the heart of the celebration of the international day of persons living with disabilities]. Radio Okapi (in French). 3 December 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2024. <a href="https://www.radiookapi.net/2021/12/03/actualite/societe/goma-le-sport-au-coeur-de-la-celebration-de-la-journee-internationale" target="_blank">https://www.radiookapi.net/2021/12/03/actualite/societe/goma-le-sport-au-coeur-de-la-celebration-de-la-journee-internationale</a> <a href="#fnref:308" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:346">Muhindo, Yusuf (2020). "L'elevage des poules pondeuses et son impact sur la vie economique dans la ville de goma de 2018–2020" [Raising laying hens and its impact on economic life in the city of Goma from 2018–2020] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Goma. Retrieved 22 February 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/10/22/13203/m_Lelevage-des-poules-pondeuses-et-son-impact-sur-la-vie-economique-dans-la-ville-de-goma-de-2018-29.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/10/22/13203/m_Lelevage-des-poules-pondeuses-et-son-impact-sur-la-vie-economique-dans-la-ville-de-goma-de-2018-29.html</a> <a href="#fnref:346" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:347">Kwiraviwe, Jonas Muhindo. "Chapitre I: Descripion de la ville de Goma" [Chapter I: Description of the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Conbgo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 27 February 2024. <a href="https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html" target="_blank">https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html</a> <a href="#fnref:347" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:348">Kwiraviwe, Jonas Muhindo. "Chapitre I: Descripion de la ville de Goma" [Chapter I: Description of the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Conbgo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 27 February 2024. <a href="https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html" target="_blank">https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html</a> <a href="#fnref:348" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:349">Karumba, Janvier Bagula (2011). "De l'opportunité du développement du tourisme au nord Kivu. Cas de la ville de Goma" [The opportunity for tourism development in North Kivu. Case of the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTou-Goma). Retrieved 27 February 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/14/8505/m_De-l-opportunite-du-developpement-du-tourisme-au-nord-Kivu-Cas-de-la-ville-de-Goma27.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/14/8505/m_De-l-opportunite-du-developpement-du-tourisme-au-nord-Kivu-Cas-de-la-ville-de-Goma27.html</a> <a href="#fnref:349" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:350">Kwiraviwe, Jonas Muhindo. "Chapitre I: Descripion de la ville de Goma" [Chapter I: Description of the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Conbgo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 27 February 2024. <a href="https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html" target="_blank">https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html</a> <a href="#fnref:350" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:351">"Lake Kivu becomes major transport hub". Africanews. Lyon, France. 12 July 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2024. <a href="https://www.africanews.com/2018/07/12/lake-kivu-becomes-major-transport-hub/" target="_blank">https://www.africanews.com/2018/07/12/lake-kivu-becomes-major-transport-hub/</a> <a href="#fnref:351" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:352">Kwiraviwe, Jonas Muhindo. "Chapitre I: Descripion de la ville de Goma" [Chapter I: Description of the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Conbgo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 27 February 2024. <a href="https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html" target="_blank">https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html</a> <a href="#fnref:352" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:353">John, Luendo Malira (September 2018). "Essai d'etude sur le reamenagement urbain de la ville de Goma" [Study essay on the urban redevelopment of the city of Goma] (PDF) (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTOU-Goma). pp. 27–30. Retrieved 4 October 2024. <a href="https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:353" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:354">John, Luendo Malira (September 2018). "Essai d'etude sur le reamenagement urbain de la ville de Goma" [Study essay on the urban redevelopment of the city of Goma] (PDF) (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTOU-Goma). pp. 27–30. Retrieved 4 October 2024. <a href="https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:354" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:355">John, Luendo Malira (September 2018). "Essai d'etude sur le reamenagement urbain de la ville de Goma" [Study essay on the urban redevelopment of the city of Goma] (PDF) (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTOU-Goma). pp. 27–30. Retrieved 4 October 2024. <a href="https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:355" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:356">John, Luendo Malira (September 2018). "Essai d'etude sur le reamenagement urbain de la ville de Goma" [Study essay on the urban redevelopment of the city of Goma] (PDF) (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTOU-Goma). pp. 27–30. Retrieved 4 October 2024. <a href="https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:356" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:357">Kwiraviwe, Jonas Muhindo. "Chapitre I: Descripion de la ville de Goma" [Chapter I: Description of the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Conbgo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural des Grands Lacs (ISDR-GL). Retrieved 27 February 2024. <a href="https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html" target="_blank">https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-descripion-de-la-ville-de-goma-1055.html</a> <a href="#fnref:357" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:358">John, Luendo Malira (September 2018). "Essai d'etude sur le reamenagement urbain de la ville de Goma" [Study essay on the urban redevelopment of the city of Goma] (PDF) (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTOU-Goma). p. 27. Retrieved 4 October 2024. <a href="https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:358" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:359">John, Luendo Malira (September 2018). "Essai d'etude sur le reamenagement urbain de la ville de Goma" [Study essay on the urban redevelopment of the city of Goma] (PDF) (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Tourisme de Goma (ISTOU-Goma). p. 27. Retrieved 4 October 2024. <a href="https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.istougoma.ac.cd/pdf/publication/642ac6221e32a.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:359" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:361">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désÅ"uvrée de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:361" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:362">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désÅ"uvrée de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:362" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:363">Witanday, Fabrice Prince Lusungu (2011). "Conséquences du mauvais lotissement dans le quartier katoyi en ville de Goma" [Consequences of bad subdivision in the Katoyi district in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Free University of the Great Lakes Countries. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/10/13/7533/m_Consequences-du-mauvais-lotissement-dans-le-quartier-katoyi-en-ville-de-Goma3.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/10/13/7533/m_Consequences-du-mauvais-lotissement-dans-le-quartier-katoyi-en-ville-de-Goma3.html</a> <a href="#fnref:363" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:364">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désÅ"uvrée de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:364" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:365">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désÅ"uvrée de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:365" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:366">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désÅ"uvrée de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:366" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:367">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désÅ"uvrée de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:367" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:368">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désÅ"uvrée de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:368" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:369">Nzayo, Jackson Amani (2015). "Contribution de l'ONGD CAJED sur l'encadrement de la jeunesse désÅ"uvrée de la ville de Goma" [Contribution of the NGO CAJED on the supervision of unemployed youth in the city of Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Dévéloppement Rural des Grands Lacs. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/04/17/9857/m_Contribution-de-l-ONGD-CAJED-sur-l-encadrement-de-la-jeunesse-desuvree-de-la-ville-de-Goma8.html</a> <a href="#fnref:369" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:378">Mungazi, Cosmas (26 November 2022). "Désormais Goma sera dirigée par un maire de ville Professeur d'Universités!" [From now on, Goma will be run by a city mayor who is a university professor!]. Flambeauestrdc.com (in French). Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://flambeauestrdc.com/desormais-goma-sera-dirigee-par-un-maire-de-ville-professeur-duniversites/" target="_blank">https://flambeauestrdc.com/desormais-goma-sera-dirigee-par-un-maire-de-ville-professeur-duniversites/</a> <a href="#fnref:378" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:379">"RDC: Félix Tshisekedi nomme des maires, bourgmestres et administrateurs des territoires civils dans des provinces sous état de siège" [DRC: Félix Tshisekedi appoints mayors, burgomasters and administrators of civil territories in provinces under state of siege]. Les Volcans News (in French). 26 November 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://lesvolcansnews.net/2022/11/26/rdc-tshisekedi-nomme-des-maires-bourgmestres-et-administrateurs-civils-dans-des-provinces-sous-etait/" target="_blank">https://lesvolcansnews.net/2022/11/26/rdc-tshisekedi-nomme-des-maires-bourgmestres-et-administrateurs-civils-dans-des-provinces-sous-etait/</a> <a href="#fnref:379" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:381">Mungazi, Cosmas (26 November 2022). "Désormais Goma sera dirigée par un maire de ville Professeur d'Universités!" [From now on, Goma will be run by a city mayor who is a university professor!]. Flambeauestrdc.com (in French). Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://flambeauestrdc.com/desormais-goma-sera-dirigee-par-un-maire-de-ville-professeur-duniversites/" target="_blank">https://flambeauestrdc.com/desormais-goma-sera-dirigee-par-un-maire-de-ville-professeur-duniversites/</a> <a href="#fnref:381" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:382">"RDC: Félix Tshisekedi nomme des maires, bourgmestres et administrateurs des territoires civils dans des provinces sous état de siège" [DRC: Félix Tshisekedi appoints mayors, burgomasters and administrators of civil territories in provinces under state of siege]. Les Volcans News (in French). 26 November 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://lesvolcansnews.net/2022/11/26/rdc-tshisekedi-nomme-des-maires-bourgmestres-et-administrateurs-civils-dans-des-provinces-sous-etait/" target="_blank">https://lesvolcansnews.net/2022/11/26/rdc-tshisekedi-nomme-des-maires-bourgmestres-et-administrateurs-civils-dans-des-provinces-sous-etait/</a> <a href="#fnref:382" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:383">Basabose, Blaise (25 July 2023). "Goma: Le commissaire supérieur Principal Kapend Kamand Faustin prend la commande de la ville" [Goma: Senior Commissioner Kapend Kamand Faustin takes command of the city]. Kivu Morning Post (in French). Retrieved 28 December 2024. <a href="https://kivumorningpost.cd/2023/07/25/goma-le-commissaire-superieur-principal-kapend-kamand-faustin-prend-la-commande-de-la-ville/" target="_blank">https://kivumorningpost.cd/2023/07/25/goma-le-commissaire-superieur-principal-kapend-kamand-faustin-prend-la-commande-de-la-ville/</a> <a href="#fnref:383" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:384">Babonangenda, Laetitia (2016). "Developpement du capital humain et croissance des petites et moyennes entreprises: cas de la ville de Goma de 2013–2015" [Human capital development and growth of small and medium-sized enterprises: the case of the city of Goma from 2013–2015] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Free University of the Great Lakes Countries. Retrieved 22 January 2025. <a href="https://www.africmemoire.com/part.6-chapitre-deuxieme-le-secteur-des-pme-dans-la-ville-de-goma-122.html" target="_blank">https://www.africmemoire.com/part.6-chapitre-deuxieme-le-secteur-des-pme-dans-la-ville-de-goma-122.html</a> <a href="#fnref:384" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:385">Mughole, Inès Kasoki (2012). "Etude sur les causes d'insuffisance ponderale des enfants a la naissance dans la zone de sante urbaine de Karisimbi ville de Goma" [Study on the causes of low birth weight in newborns in the Karisimbi Urban Health Zone, Goma city] (in French). Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu). Retrieved 13 January 2025. <a href="https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-presentation-du-milieu-detude-1609.html" target="_blank">https://www.africmemoire.com/part.3-chapitre-i-presentation-du-milieu-detude-1609.html</a> <a href="#fnref:385" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:386">Kihimba, Trésor Mumbere (2012). "Problématique de gestion des latrines dans les institutions supérieures et universitaires" [Problems of latrine management in higher education and university institutions] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Free University of the Great Lakes Countries. Retrieved 13 January 2025. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6839/m_Problematique-de-gestion-des-latrines-dans-les-institutions-superieures-et-universitaires4.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/13/6839/m_Problematique-de-gestion-des-latrines-dans-les-institutions-superieures-et-universitaires4.html</a> <a href="#fnref:386" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:387">MAXIMUM, LE (18 May 2020). "Meilleures universités en RDC" [Best universities in DRC]. Le Maximum (in French). Retrieved 13 January 2025. <a href="https://lemaximum.cd/2020/05/18/societe/meilleures-universites-en-rdc/" target="_blank">https://lemaximum.cd/2020/05/18/societe/meilleures-universites-en-rdc/</a> <a href="#fnref:387" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:388">Bakenga, Dieudonné. "L'ULPGL classée 2è ou 3è université de la RDC" [ULPGL ranked 2nd or 3rd university in the DRC]. Ulpgl.net (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Free University of the Great Lakes Countries. Retrieved 13 January 2025. <a href="https://ulpgl.net/lulpgl-classee-2e-ou-3e-universite-de-la-rdc/" target="_blank">https://ulpgl.net/lulpgl-classee-2e-ou-3e-universite-de-la-rdc/</a> <a href="#fnref:388" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:389">Buchekabiri, Ephrem Chiruza (2015). "Apport de la communication dans la gestion d'une institution universitaire en concurrence, cas de l'unic Goma" [Contribution of communication in the management of a competitive university institution, case of UNIC Goma] (in French). Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université du CEPROMAD (UNIC-Goma). Retrieved 13 January 2025. <a href="https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9499/m_Apport-de-la-communication-dans-la-gestion-d-une-institution-universitaire-en-concurrence-cas-de-l19.html" target="_blank">https://www.memoireonline.com/01/17/9499/m_Apport-de-la-communication-dans-la-gestion-d-une-institution-universitaire-en-concurrence-cas-de-l19.html</a> <a href="#fnref:389" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:391">Hendriks, Maarten; Büscher, Karen (September 2019). "Insecurity in Goma: Experiences, actors and responses" (PDF). Riftvalley.net. Nairobi, Kenya: Rift Valley Institute. pp. 22–27. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf" target="_blank">https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:391" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:392">Hendriks, Maarten; Büscher, Karen (September 2019). "Insecurity in Goma: Experiences, actors and responses" (PDF). Riftvalley.net. Nairobi, Kenya: Rift Valley Institute. pp. 22–27. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf" target="_blank">https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:392" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:394">Hendriks, Maarten; Büscher, Karen (September 2019). "Insecurity in Goma: Experiences, actors and responses" (PDF). Riftvalley.net. Nairobi, Kenya: Rift Valley Institute. pp. 22–27. Retrieved 2024-03-02. <a href="https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf" target="_blank">https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Insecurity-in-Goma-by-Maarten-Hendriks-and-Karen-Buscher-RVI-Usalama-Project-2019.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:394" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

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Goma