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Fragmentation (reproduction)
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<h2 id="fragmentation-in-various-organisms">Fragmentation in various organisms</h2> <p>Molds, <a href="/facts/Yeast/eGD24nfI">yeasts</a> and <a href="/facts/Mushroom/sRdY6lfe">mushrooms</a>, all of which are part of the <a href="/facts/Fungi/BHo5DP59">Fungi</a> <a href="/facts/Kingdom_(biology)/QGRKbHos">kingdom</a>, produce tiny filaments called <a href="/facts/Hypha/xogd3AHz">hyphae</a>. These hyphae obtain food and nutrients from the body of other organisms to grow and fertilize. Then a piece of hyphae breaks off and grows into a new individual and the cycle continues. </p><p>Many <a href="/facts/Lichen/cfbt9vjj">lichens</a> produce specialized structures that can easily break away and disperse. These structures contain both hyphae of the <a href="/facts/Mycobiont/lUrd6Sn7">mycobiont</a> and the algae (<a href="/facts/Phycobiont/lUrd6Sn7">phycobiont</a>) (see <a href="/facts/Soredia/gvyx95cL">soredia</a> and <a href="/facts/Isidia/B4h7R40q">isidia</a>). Larger fragments of the thallus may break away when the lichen dries or due to mechanical disturbances (see the section on <a href="/facts/Lichen/cfbt9vjj">reproduction in lichens</a>). </p> <h2 id="plants">Plants</h2> <p>Fragmentation is a very common type of <a href="/facts/Vegetative_reproduction/Y6xlN48g">vegetative reproduction</a> in <a href="/facts/Plants/X5BMDMvS">plants</a>. Many <a href="/facts/Trees/HVVn3srN">trees</a>, <a href="/facts/Shrub/X1gKVxL5">shrubs</a>, nonwoody <a href="/facts/Perennial_plant/MQ3NvAUW">perennials</a>, and <a href="/facts/Fern/e6Cngdyo">ferns</a> form <a href="/facts/Clonal_colony/SDblHCVk">clonal colonies</a> by producing new rooted shoots by <a href="/facts/Rhizomes/wWDKJrSf">rhizomes</a> or <a href="/facts/Stolons/dNDj2H9p">stolons</a>, which increases the diameter of the colony. If a rooted <a href="/facts/Shoot_(botany)/ML2z0pru">shoot</a> becomes detached from the colony, then fragmentation has occurred. There are several other mechanisms of natural fragmentation in plants. </p> <ul><li>Production of specialized reproductive structures: A few plants produce <a href="/facts/Adventitious/QG8xICDa">adventitious</a> plantlets on their leaves, which drop off and form independent plants, e.g. <i><a href="/facts/Tolmiea_menziesii/JrKRNLX8">Tolmiea menziesii</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Kalanchoe_daigremontiana/ACGYUDBq">Kalanchoe daigremontiana</a></i>. Others produce organs like <a href="/facts/Bulbil/pG6T0v1N">bulbils</a> and <a href="/facts/Turion_(botany)/QgqcJRC9">turions</a>.</li> <li>Easily lost parts that have high potential to grow into a complete plant: Some woody plants like the <a href="/facts/Willow/F66Xvslm">willow</a> naturally shed twigs. This is termed <a href="/facts/Cladoptosis/JKUF1Baj">cladoptosis</a>. The lost twigs may form roots in a suitable environment to establish a new plant. River currents often tear off branch fragments from certain cottonwood species growing on riverbanks. Fragments reaching suitable environments can root and establish new plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> Some <a href="/facts/Cactus/JTf3NFBj">cacti</a> and other plants have jointed stems. When a stem segment, called a pad, falls off, it can root and form a new plant. Leaves of some plants readily root when they fall off, e.g. <i><a href="/facts/Sedum/ysUlfNKG">Sedum</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Echeveria/gE6e85GD">Echeveria</a></i>.</li> <li>Fragmentation is observed in <a href="/facts/Nonvascular_plants/z1LbfESm">nonvascular plants</a> as well, for example, in liverworts and mosses. Small pieces of moss "stems" or "leaves" are often scattered by the wind, water or animals. If a moss fragment reaches a suitable environment, it can establish a new plant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> They also produce <a href="/facts/Gemma_(botany)/aQaqJEaw">gemmae</a>, for example in the splash-cups of <i><a href="/facts/Marchantia_polymorpha/GkjPkbxd">Marchantia polymorpha</a></i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> that are easily broken off and distributed.</li></ul> <p>People use fragmentation to artificially propagate many plants via <a href="/facts/Division_(horticulture)/xazU2EWF">division</a>, <a href="/facts/Layering/VU1ancxM">layering</a>, <a href="/facts/Cutting_(plant)/4lTh0bjD">cuttings</a>, <a href="/facts/Grafting/s1hfSwTR">grafting</a>, <a href="/facts/Micropropagation/mhzlonDU">micropropagation</a> and <a href="/facts/Storage_organ/FTXfMqAt">storage organs</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Bulb/YbycDwS7">bulbs</a>, <a href="/facts/Corm/vDlWanct">corms</a>, <a href="/facts/Tuber/wGw2Sbag">tubers</a> and <a href="/facts/Rhizome/wWDKJrSf">rhizomes</a>. </p><p>Many algae too, <i><a href="/facts/Spirogyra/cG61SmHj">spirogyra</a></i> for example also fragment, the mother plant breaks into two or more smaller fragments which then grow independently. After growing these individual spirogyra fragment, repeating the cycle. </p> <h2 id="animals">Animals</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Sponges/E9T2WFWA">Sponges</a> and <a href="/facts/Coral/j7fBLrpw">coral</a> colonies naturally fragment and reproduce. Many species of <a href="/facts/Annelids/PQvb7NAM">annelids</a> and flatworms produce by this method. When the splitting occurs due to specific developmental changes, the terms orchiectomy, laparotomy, and <a href="/facts/Budding/TEB3zXxB">budding</a> are used. In '<a href="/facts/Architomy/f0941CX2">architomy</a>' the animal splits at a particular point and the two fragments regenerate the missing organs and tissues. The splitting is not preceded by the development of the tissues to be lost. Before splitting, the animal may develop furrows at the zone of splitting. The headless fragment must regenerate a completely new head. In '<a href="/facts/Paratomy/1Ge3rccP">paratomy</a>', the split occurs perpendicular to the <a href="/facts/Antero-posteriorly/IpJ1fq2f">antero-posterior axis</a> and the split is preceded by the "pregeneration" of the anterior structures in the posterior portion. The two organisms have their body axis aligned i.e. they develop in a head to tail fashion. Budding is similar to paratomy except that the body axes need not be aligned: the new head may grow toward the side or even point backward (e.g. <i><a href="/facts/Convolutriloba_retrogemma/6JHzg6Bk">Convolutriloba retrogemma</a></i> an <a href="/facts/Acoela/WjUIboyJ">acoel</a> flat worm).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p> <h3>Coral</h3> <p>Many types of <a href="/facts/Coral/j7fBLrpw">coral</a> colonies can increase in number by fragmentation occurring naturally<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> or artificially. <a href="/facts/Reef_aquarium/jzunoDx7">Reef aquarium</a> enthusiasts fragment <a href="/facts/Coral/j7fBLrpw">corals</a> for various purposes including shape control; sharing with others; regrowth experiments; and minimizing damage to natural coral reefs. Both hard and soft corals can be fragmented. <a href="/facts/Genera/m8EFjSms">Genera</a> highly tolerant of fragmentation include <i><a href="/facts/Acropora/kkqHWoPo">Acropora</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Montipora/wMuKIIMv">Montipora</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Pocillopora/yXLM4zXD">Pocillopora</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Euphyllia/R9BTSFGe">Euphyllia</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Caulastraea/TwFuMMu9">Caulastraea</a></i> among others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> Most <a href="/facts/Sea_anemone/uWTgHLzS">sea anemones</a> reproduce through fragmentation via a variety of methods including longitudinal fission, where the original anemone splits across the middle forming two equal-sized anemones, and basal laceration, in which small parts of the animal split from the base to form new anemones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h3>Echinoderms</h3> <p>In <a href="/facts/Echinoderm/j2rd8qwt">echinoderms</a>, the process is usually known as fissiparity (a term also used infrequently for <a href="/facts/Fission_(biology)/9Ed5vUr6">biological fission</a> in general). Some species can intentionally reproduce in this manner through <a href="/facts/Autotomy/4PBAwg9u">autotomy</a>. This method is more common during the larval editing stages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="disadvantage-of-this-process-of-reproduction">Disadvantage of this process of reproduction</h2> <p>As this process is a form of asexual reproduction, it does not produce <a href="/facts/Genetic_diversity/GIymbUr8">genetic diversity</a> in the offspring. Therefore, these are more vulnerable to changing environments, parasites, and diseases. </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Fission_(biology)/9Ed5vUr6">Fission (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Budding/TEB3zXxB">Budding</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Micropropagation/mhzlonDU">Micropropagation</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Rood, S.B., Kalischuk, M.L., and Braatne, J.H. 2003. Branch propagation, not cladoptosis, permits dispersive, clonal reproduction of riparian cottonwoods. Forest Ecology and Management 186: 227–242. [1] Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine <a href="/w/index.php?title=Riparian_cottonwood&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">/w/index.php?title=Riparian_cottonwood&action=edit&redlink=1</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Moss asexual reproduction". Archived from the original on 2006-09-27. Retrieved 2006-08-06. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060927220618/http://www.sbs.auckland.ac.nz/info/schools/nzplants/moss_asexual.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20060927220618/http://www.sbs.auckland.ac.nz/info/schools/nzplants/moss_asexual.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Equihua, Clementina (1987). "Diseminación de yemas en Marchantia polymorpha L. (Hepaticae)". Cryptogamie, Bryologie, Lichénologie (in Spanish). 8 (3): 199–217. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Åkesson, Bertil; Robert Gschwentner; Jan Hendelberg; Peter Ladurner; Johann Müller; Reinhard Rieger (2001-12-01). "Fission in Convolutriloba longifissura: asexual reproduction in acoelous turbellarians revisited" (PDF). Acta Zoologica. 82 (3): 231–239. doi:10.1046/j.1463-6395.2001.00084.x. ISSN 1463-6395. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2011-07-13. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105428/http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c719135/pdf/Akesson-Gschwentner-2001.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105428/http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c719135/pdf/Akesson-Gschwentner-2001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Egger, Bernhard (December 2008). "Regeneration: rewarding, but potentially risky" (PDF). Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews. 84 (4): 257–264. doi:10.1002/bdrc.20135. ISSN 1542-9768. PMID 19067421. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2011-07-13. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811070431/http://www.uibk.ac.at/zoology/staff/egger/images/egger-regeneration-review-2008.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110811070431/http://www.uibk.ac.at/zoology/staff/egger/images/egger-regeneration-review-2008.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Lirman, Diego (2000-08-23). "Fragmentation in the branching coral Acropora palmata (Lamarck): growth, survivorship, and reproduction of colonies and fragments" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 251 (1): 41–57. doi:10.1016/s0022-0981(00)00205-7. ISSN 0022-0981. PMID 10958900. Retrieved 2011-07-13. <a href="http://utweb.ut.edu/hosted/faculty/srice/BIO224.Folder/Invert.Lit.PDF/89.Acropora.fragment.pdf" target="_blank">http://utweb.ut.edu/hosted/faculty/srice/BIO224.Folder/Invert.Lit.PDF/89.Acropora.fragment.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Calfo, Anthony (2008). "Coral fragmentation: Not just for beginners". Reefkeeping Magazine. Reef Central. Retrieved 2015-05-03. <a href="http://www.reefkeeping.com/issues/2002-06/ac/feature/" target="_blank">http://www.reefkeeping.com/issues/2002-06/ac/feature/</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"Fact Sheet: Sea Anemones". Marine Biological Association. Archived from the original on 24 December 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2018. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191224194037/https://www.mba.ac.uk/fact-sheet-sea-anemones" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20191224194037/https://www.mba.ac.uk/fact-sheet-sea-anemones</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Helen Nilsson Sköld; Matthias Obst; Mattias Sköld; Bertil Åkesson (2009). "Stem Cells in Asexual Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates". In Baruch Rinkevich; Valeria Matranga (eds.). Stem Cells in Marine Organisms. Springer. p. 125. ISBN 978-90-481-2766-5. <a href="978-90-481-2766-5" target="_blank">978-90-481-2766-5</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>