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Syriac alphabet
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<h2 id="alphabet-forms">Alphabet forms</h2> <p>There are three major variants of the Syriac alphabet: <i>ʾEsṭrangēlā</i>, <i>Maḏnḥāyā</i> and <i>Serṭā</i>. </p> <h3> Classical <i>ʾEsṭrangēlā</i></h3> <p>The oldest and classical form of the alphabet is <i>ʾEsṭrangēlā</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> (ܐܣܛܪܢܓܠܐ). The name of the script is thought to derive from the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek/LIK7NlUh">Greek</a> adjective <i>strongýlē</i> (στρογγύλη, 'rounded'),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> though it has also been suggested to derive from <i>serṭā ʾewwangēlāyā</i> (ܣܪܛܐ ܐܘܢܓܠܝܐ, 'gospel character').<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Although ʾEsṭrangēlā is no longer used as the main script for writing Syriac, it has received some revival since the 10th century. It is often used in scholarly publications (such as the <a href="/facts/Leiden_University/MqnmnTtF">Leiden University</a> version of the <a href="/facts/Peshitta/Yvnsbgum">Peshitta</a>), in titles, and in <a href="/facts/Epigraphy/E9UbNeDh">inscriptions</a>. In some older <a href="/facts/Manuscript/A6XNmrTd">manuscripts</a> and inscriptions, it is possible for any letter to join to the left, and older Aramaic letter forms (especially of <a href="/facts/Heth/HT1Vkutu"><i>ḥeṯ</i></a> and the lunate <a href="/facts/Mem/ykDtAr5g"><i>mem</i></a>) are found. Vowel marks are usually not used with <i>ʾEsṭrangēlā</i>, being the oldest form of the script and arising before the development of specialized diacritics. </p> <h3> East Syriac <i>Maḏnḥāyā</i></h3> <p>The East Syriac dialect is usually written in the <i>Maḏnḥāyā</i> (ܡܲܕ݂ܢܚܵܝܵܐ, 'Eastern') form of the alphabet. Other names for the script include <i>Swāḏāyā</i> (ܣܘܵܕ݂ܵܝܵܐ, 'conversational' or 'vernacular', often translated as 'contemporary', reflecting its use in writing modern Neo-Aramaic), <i>ʾĀṯōrāyā</i> (ܐܵܬ݂ܘܿܪܵܝܵܐ, 'Assyrian', not to be confused with the traditional name for the <a href="/facts/Hebrew_alphabet/qQStmr5u">Hebrew alphabet</a>), <i>Kaldāyā</i> (ܟܲܠܕܵܝܵܐ, 'Chaldean'), and, inaccurately, "Nestorian" (a term that was originally used to refer to the <a href="/facts/Church_of_the_East/WBuCavb6">Church of the East</a> in the <a href="/facts/Sasanian_Empire/JvbRevkA">Sasanian Empire</a>). The Eastern script resembles ʾEsṭrangēlā somewhat more closely than the Western script. </p> <h4>Vowels</h4> <p>The Eastern script uses a system of dots above and/or below letters, based on an older system, to indicate vowel sounds not found in the script: </p> <ul><li>() A dot above and a dot below a letter represent [a], transliterated as <i>a</i> or <i>ă</i> (called ܦܬ݂ܵܚܵܐ, <i>pṯāḥā</i>),</li> <li>() Two diagonally-placed dots above a letter represent [ɑ], transliterated as <i>ā</i> or <i>â</i> or <i>å</i> (called ܙܩܵܦ݂ܵܐ, <i>zqāp̄ā</i>),</li> <li>() Two horizontally-placed dots below a letter represent [ɛ], transliterated as <i>e</i> or <i>ĕ</i> (called ܪܒ݂ܵܨܵܐ ܐܲܪܝܼܟ݂ܵܐ, <i>rḇāṣā ʾărīḵā</i> or ܙܠܵܡܵܐ ܦܫܝܼܩܵܐ, <i>zlāmā pšīqā</i>; often pronounced [ɪ] and transliterated as <i>i</i> in the East Syriac dialect),</li> <li>() Two diagonally-placed dots below a letter represent [e], transliterated as <i>ē</i> (called ܪܒ݂ܵܨܵܐ ܟܲܪܝܵܐ, <i>rḇāṣā karyā</i> or ܙܠܵܡܵܐ ܩܲܫܝܵܐ, <i>zlāmā qašyā</i>),</li> <li>(ܘܼ) The letter <i>waw</i> with a dot below it represents [u], transliterated as <i>ū</i> or <i>u</i> (called ܥܨܵܨܵܐ ܐܲܠܝܼܨܵܐ, <i>ʿṣāṣā ʾălīṣā</i> or ܪܒ݂ܵܨܵܐ, <i>rḇāṣā</i>),</li> <li>(ܘܿ) The letter <i>waw</i> with a dot above it represents [o], transliterated as <i>ō</i> or <i>o</i> (called ܥܨܵܨܵܐ ܪܘܝܼܚܵܐ, <i>ʿṣāṣā rwīḥā</i> or ܪܘܵܚܵܐ, <i>rwāḥā</i>),</li> <li>(ܝܼ) The letter <i>yōḏ</i> with a dot beneath it represents [i], transliterated as <i>ī</i> or <i>i</i> (called ܚܒ݂ܵܨܵܐ, <i>ḥḇāṣā</i>),</li> <li>() A combination of <i>rḇāṣā karyā</i> (usually) followed by a letter <i>yōḏ</i> represents [e] (possibly *[e̝] in Proto-Syriac), transliterated as <i>ē</i> or <i>ê</i> (called ܐܲܣܵܩܵܐ, <i>ʾăsāqā</i>).</li></ul> <p>It is thought that the Eastern method for representing vowels influenced the development of the <i><a href="/facts/Niqqud/6uRth9fD">niqqud</a></i> markings used for writing Hebrew. </p><p>In addition to the above vowel marks, transliteration of Syriac sometimes includes <i>ə</i>, <i>e̊</i> or superscript <i>e</i> (or often nothing at all) to represent an original Aramaic <a href="/facts/Schwa/5TvL9LSb">schwa</a> that became lost later on at some point in the development of Syriac. Some transliteration schemes find its inclusion necessary for showing spirantization or for historical reasons. Whether because its distribution is mostly predictable (usually inside a syllable-initial two-consonant cluster) or because its pronunciation was lost, both the East and the West variants of the alphabet traditionally have no sign to represent the schwa. </p> <h3> West Syriac <i>Serṭā</i></h3> <p>The West Syriac dialect is usually written in the <i>Serṭā</i> or <i>Serṭo</i> (ܣܶܪܛܳܐ, 'line') form of the alphabet, also known as the <i>Pšīṭā</i> (ܦܫܺܝܛܳܐ, 'simple'), 'Maronite' or the 'Jacobite' script (although the term <i>Jacobite</i> is considered derogatory). Most of the letters are clearly derived from ʾEsṭrangēlā, but are simplified, flowing lines. A cursive <a href="/facts/Chancery_hand/oUITLpnx">chancery hand</a> is evidenced in the earliest Syriac manuscripts, but important works were written in ʾEsṭrangēlā. From the 8th century, the simpler Serṭā style came into fashion, perhaps because of its more economical use of <a href="/facts/Parchment/1lqNVkWj">parchment</a>. </p> <h4>Vowels</h4> <p>The Western script is usually vowel-pointed, with miniature Greek vowel letters above or below the letter which they follow: </p> <ul><li>() Capital <a href="/facts/Alpha/I51VqVVm">alpha</a> (Α) represents [a], transliterated as <i>a</i> or <i>ă</i> (ܦܬ݂ܳܚܳܐ, <i>pṯāḥā</i>),</li> <li>() Lowercase alpha (α) represents [ɑ], transliterated as <i>ā</i> or <i>â</i> or <i>å</i> (ܙܩܳܦ݂ܳܐ, <i>zqāp̄ā</i>; pronounced as [o] and transliterated as <i>o</i> in the West Syriac dialect),</li> <li>() Lowercase <a href="/facts/Epsilon/3G846hlN">epsilon</a> (ε) represents both [ɛ], transliterated as <i>e</i> or <i>ĕ</i>, and [e], transliterated as <i>ē</i> (ܪܒ݂ܳܨܳܐ, <i>rḇāṣā</i>),</li> <li>() Capital <a href="/facts/Eta/jnxIHnSd">eta</a> (<i>H</i>) represents [i], transliterated as <i>ī</i> (ܚܒ݂ܳܨܳܐ, <i>ḥḇāṣā</i>),</li> <li>() A combined symbol of capital <a href="/facts/Upsilon/mRWXxIvh">upsilon</a> (Υ) and lowercase <a href="/facts/Omicron/PEloNryk">omicron</a> (ο) represents [u], transliterated as <i>ū</i> or <i>u</i> (ܥܨܳܨܳܐ, <i>ʿṣāṣā</i>),</li> <li>Lowercase <a href="/facts/Omega/1CrSPtKM">omega</a> (ω), used only in the vocative interjection <i>ʾō</i> (ܐܘّ, 'O!').</li></ul> <h2 id="summary-table">Summary table</h2> <p>The Syriac alphabet consists of the following letters, shown in their isolated (non-connected) forms. When isolated, the letters <i>kāp̄</i>, <i>mīm</i>, and <i>nūn</i> are usually shown with their initial form connected to their final form (see below). The letters <i>ʾālep̄</i>, <i>dālaṯ</i>, <i>hē</i>, <i>waw</i>, <i>zayn</i>, <i>ṣāḏē</i>, <i>rēš</i> and <i>taw</i> (and, in early ʾEsṭrangēlā manuscripts, the letter <i>semkaṯ</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a>) do not connect to a following letter within a word; these are marked with an asterisk (*). </p> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="6">Letter</th><th colspan="2">Sound Value(Classical Syriac)</th><th rowspan="2">NumericalValue</th><th rowspan="2">PhoenicianEquivalent</th><th rowspan="2">Imperial AramaicEquivalent</th><th rowspan="2">HebrewEquivalent</th><th rowspan="2">Arabic<p>Equivalent</p></th></tr><tr><th>Name</th><th>Translit.</th><th><i>ʾEsṭrangēlā(classical)</i></th><th><i>Maḏnḥāyā(eastern)</i></th><th><i>Serṭā(western)</i></th><th>Unicode(typing)</th><th>Transliteration</th><th><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a></th></tr><tr><td>*ܐܠܦ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Aleph/fFWqQp9C">ʾĀlep̄</a></i>*<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܐ</td><td><i><i>ʾ</i></i> or null mater lectionis: <i><i>ā</i></i></td><td>[<a href="/facts/Glottal_stop/Xfqy2ArP">ʔ</a>] or ∅ mater lectionis: [<a href="/facts/Open_back_unrounded_vowel/znr1wT5C">ɑ</a>]</td><td>1</td><td>𐤀</td><td>𐡀</td><td>א</td><td>ا</td></tr><tr><td>ܒܝܬ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Bet_(letter)/Srgaea2b">Bēṯ</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܒ</td><td>hard: <i><i>b</i></i>soft: <i><i>ḇ</i></i> (also <i><i>bh</i></i>, <i><i>v</i></i> or <i><i>ꞵ</i></i>)</td><td>hard: [<a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_plosive/6ReC9arR">b</a>]soft: [<a href="/facts/Voiced_labiodental_fricative/v9lESng4">v</a>] or [<a href="/facts/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant/HLDqbrvr">w</a>]</td><td>2</td><td>𐤁</td><td>𐡁</td><td>ב</td><td>ب</td></tr><tr><td>ܓܡܠ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Gimel/X9bUMl2A">Gāmal</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܓ</td><td>hard: <i><i>g</i></i>soft: <i><i>ḡ</i></i> (also <i><i>g̱</i></i>, <i><i>gh</i></i>, <i><i>ġ</i></i> or <i><i>γ</i></i>)</td><td>hard: [<a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_plosive/f6udTvfQ">ɡ</a>]soft: [<a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_fricative/ESy9fy1G">ɣ</a>]</td><td>3</td><td>𐤂</td><td>𐡂</td><td>ג</td><td>ج</td></tr><tr><td>*ܕܠܬ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Dalet/0twlfWSk">Dālaṯ</a></i>*</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܕ</td><td>hard: <i><i>d</i></i>soft: <i><i>ḏ</i></i> (also <i><i>dh</i></i>, <i><i>ð</i></i> or <i><i>ẟ</i></i>)</td><td>hard: [<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_plosive/A6hNvmCp">d</a>]soft: [<a href="/facts/Voiced_dental_fricative/MTJup6oV">ð</a>]</td><td>4</td><td>𐤃</td><td>𐡃</td><td>ד</td><td>د / ذ</td></tr><tr><td>*ܗܐ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/He_(letter)/xX9tL4gb">Hē</a></i>*</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܗ</td><td><i><i>h</i></i>mater lectionis: <i><i>ē</i></i> (or <i><i>e</i></i>)</td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiceless_glottal_fricative/lfRB7CPW">h</a>] mater lectionis: [<a href="/facts/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel/e9YNLF97">e</a>]</td><td>5</td><td>𐤄</td><td>𐡄</td><td>ה</td><td>ه</td></tr><tr><td>*ܘܘ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Waw_(letter)/TKp2ez3q">Waw</a></i>*</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܘ</td><td>consonant: <i><i>w</i></i>mater lectionis: <i><i>ū</i></i> or <i><i>ō</i></i>(also <i><i>u</i></i> or <i><i>o</i></i>)</td><td>consonant: [<a href="/facts/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant/HLDqbrvr">w</a>]mater lectionis: [<a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">u</a>] or [<a href="/facts/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel/VwS9cKWJ">o</a>]</td><td>6</td><td>𐤅</td><td>𐡅</td><td>ו</td><td>و</td></tr><tr><td>*ܙܝܢ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Zayin/zyRrAtL3">Zayn</a></i>*</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܙ</td><td><i><i>z</i></i></td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_fricative/TtHwyzp6">z</a>]</td><td>7</td><td>𐤆</td><td>𐡆</td><td>ז</td><td>ز</td></tr><tr><td>ܚܝܬ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Heth/HT1Vkutu">Ḥēṯ</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܚ</td><td><i><i>ḥ</i></i> (also <i><i>H</i></i>, <i><i>kh</i></i>, <i><i>x</i></i> or <i><i>ħ</i></i>)</td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative/Y2qSAoED">ħ</a>], [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_fricative/mrKPhobk">x</a>] or [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_uvular_fricative/gncAMNne">χ</a>]</td><td>8</td><td>𐤇</td><td>𐡇</td><td>ח</td><td>ح / خ</td></tr><tr><td>ܛܝܬ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Teth/l9eCffx5">Ṭēṯ</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܛ</td><td><i><i>ṭ</i></i> (also <i><i>T</i></i> or <i><i>ţ</i></i>)</td><td>[<a href="/facts/Pharyngealization/yesDa9qg">tˤ</a>]</td><td>9</td><td>𐤈</td><td>𐡈</td><td>ט</td><td>ظ / ط</td></tr><tr><td>ܝܘܕ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Yodh/mvVQfBTm">Yōḏ</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܝ</td><td>consonant: <i><i>y</i></i>mater lectionis: <i><i>ī</i></i> (also <i><i>i</i></i>)</td><td>consonant: [<a href="/facts/Voiced_palatal_approximant/v0NVCbUh">j</a>]mater lectionis: [<a href="/facts/Close_front_unrounded_vowel/rSUdlCPU">i</a>] or [<a href="/facts/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel/1eQAfkDy">ɪ</a>]</td><td>10</td><td>𐤉</td><td>𐡉</td><td>י</td><td>ي</td></tr><tr><td>ܟܦ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Kaph/hDIlq2Ml">Kāp̄</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܟܟ</td><td>hard: <i><i>k</i></i>soft: <i><i>ḵ</i></i> (also <i><i>kh</i></i> or <i><i>x</i></i>)</td><td>hard: [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_plosive/dDppVb6e">k</a>]soft: [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_fricative/mrKPhobk">x</a>]</td><td>20</td><td>𐤊</td><td>𐡊</td><td>כ ך</td><td>ك</td></tr><tr><td>ܠܡܕ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Lamedh/17U3cu1e">Lāmaḏ</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܠ</td><td><i><i>l</i></i></td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">l</a>]</td><td>30</td><td>𐤋</td><td>𐡋</td><td>ל</td><td>ل</td></tr><tr><td>ܡܝܡ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Mem/ykDtAr5g">Mīm</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܡܡ</td><td><i><i>m</i></i></td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_nasal/1pd7NK2x">m</a>]</td><td>40</td><td>𐤌</td><td>𐡌</td><td>מ ם</td><td>م</td></tr><tr><td>ܢܘܢ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Nun_(letter)/3mQbmbHv">Nūn</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܢܢ</td><td><i><i>n</i></i></td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_nasal/0CEs8314">n</a>]</td><td>50</td><td>𐤍</td><td>𐡍</td><td>נ ן</td><td>ن</td></tr><tr><td>ܣܡܟܬ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Samekh/gDVKbXbl">Semkaṯ</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܣ</td><td><i><i>s</i></i></td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative/WLKtEYDe">s</a>]</td><td>60</td><td>𐤎</td><td>𐡎</td><td>ס</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ܥܐ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Ayin/PH5yVCtl">ʿĒ</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܥ</td><td><i><i>ʿ</i></i></td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative/vv0pypE7">ʕ</a>]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></td><td>70</td><td>𐤏</td><td>𐡏</td><td>ע</td><td>ع / غ</td></tr><tr><td>ܦܐ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Pe_(Semitic_letter)/QDVgytTJ">Pē</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܦ</td><td>hard: <i><i>p</i></i>soft: <i><i>p̄</i></i> (also <i><i>p̱</i></i>, <i><i>ᵽ</i></i>, <i><i>ph</i></i> or <i><i>f</i></i>)</td><td>hard: [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive/w4M9Igp6">p</a>]soft: [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative/dUkN8guL">f</a>]</td><td>80</td><td>𐤐</td><td>𐡐</td><td>פ ף</td><td>ف</td></tr><tr><td>*ܨܕܐ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Tsade/cN3xQlt6">Ṣāḏē</a></i>*</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܨ</td><td><i><i>ṣ</i></i> (also <i><i>S</i></i> or <i><i>ş</i></i>)</td><td>[<a href="/facts/Pharyngealization/yesDa9qg">sˤ</a>]</td><td>90</td><td>𐤑</td><td>𐡑</td><td>צ ץ</td><td>ض / ص</td></tr><tr><td>ܩܘܦ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Qoph/qKXUPmUR">Qōp̄</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܩ</td><td><i><i>q</i></i> (also <i><i>ḳ</i></i>)</td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiceless_uvular_plosive/aKeHjs1N">q</a>]</td><td>100</td><td>𐤒</td><td>𐡒</td><td>ק</td><td>ق</td></tr><tr><td>*ܪܝܫ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Resh/PRjqY1m1">Rēš</a></i>*</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܪ</td><td><i><i>r</i></i></td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_trill/rDplJobc">r</a>]</td><td>200</td><td>𐤓</td><td>𐡓</td><td>ר</td><td>ر</td></tr><tr><td>ܫܝܢ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Shin_(letter)/D8AeI5cw">Šīn</a></i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܫ</td><td><i><i>š</i></i> (also <i><i>sh</i></i>)</td><td>[<a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative/enUwqS2w">ʃ</a>]</td><td>300</td><td>𐤔</td><td>𐡔</td><td>ש</td><td>س / ش</td></tr><tr><td>*ܬܘ</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Taw/xPAIoNzc">Taw</a></i>*</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ܬ</td><td>hard: <i><i>t</i></i>soft: <i><i>ṯ</i></i> (also <i><i>th</i></i> or <i><i>θ</i></i>)</td><td>hard: [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive/1GaDe2Vy">t</a>]soft: [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_fricative/hmQpb6pI">θ</a>]</td><td>400</td><td>𐤕</td><td>𐡕</td><td>ת</td><td>ت / ث</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="contextual-forms-of-letters">Contextual forms of letters</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Letter<p>name</p></th><th colspan="3"><i>ʾEsṭrangēlā</i> (classical)</th><th colspan="3"><i>Maḏnḥāyā</i> (eastern)</th></tr><tr><th>Unconnected<p>final</p></th><th>Connected<p>final</p></th><th>Initial or<p>unconnected</p><p>medial</p></th><th>Unconnected<p>final</p></th><th>Connected<p>final</p></th><th>Initial or<p>unconnected</p><p>medial</p></th></tr><tr><td><i>ʾĀlep̄</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Bēṯ</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Gāmal</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Dālaṯ</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Hē</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Waw</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Zayn</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Ḥēṯ</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Ṭēṯ</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Yōḏ</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Kāp̄</i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Lāmaḏ</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Mīm</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Nūn</i></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Semkaṯ</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td> / </td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>ʿĒ</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Pē</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Ṣāḏē</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Qōp̄</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Rēš</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Šīn</i></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td> </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Taw</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Ligatures</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Letter<p>name</p></th><th colspan="3"><i>ʾEsṭrangēlā</i> (classical)</th><th colspan="3"><i>Maḏnḥāyā</i> (eastern)</th><th rowspan="2">Unicodecharacter(s)</th><th rowspan="2">Description</th></tr><tr><th>Unconnected<p>final</p></th><th>Connected<p>final</p></th><th>Initial or<p>unconnected</p><p>medial</p></th><th>Unconnected<p>final</p></th><th>Connected<p>final</p></th><th>Initial or<p>unconnected</p><p>medial</p></th></tr><tr><td><i>Lāmaḏ-ʾĀlep̄</i></td><td colspan="2"></td><td> </td><td colspan="2"></td><td> </td><td>ܠܐ</td><td><i>Lāmaḏ</i> and <i>ʾĀlep̄</i> combinedat the end of a word</td></tr><tr><td><i>Taw-ʾĀlep̄</i></td><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td> / </td><td></td><td> </td><td>ܬܐ</td><td><i>Taw</i> and <i>ʾĀlep̄</i> combinedat the end of a word</td></tr><tr><td><i>Hē-Yōḏ</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td>ܗܝ</td><td><i>Hē</i> and <i>Yōḏ</i> combinedat the end of a word</td></tr><tr><td><i>Taw-Yōḏ</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td></td><td> </td><td>ܬܝ</td><td><i>Taw</i> and <i>Yōḏ</i> combinedat the end of a word</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="letter-alterations">Letter alterations</h2> <h3><i>Matres lectionis</i></h3> <p>Three letters act as <i><a href="/facts/Mater_lectionis/PxIH86t9">matres lectionis</a></i>: rather than being a consonant, they indicate a vowel. <a href="/facts/Aleph_(letter)/fFWqQp9C"><i>ʾālep̄</i></a> (ܐ), the first letter, represents a <a href="/facts/Glottal_stop/Xfqy2ArP">glottal stop</a>, but it can also indicate a vowel, especially at the beginning or the end of a word. The letter <i><a href="/facts/Waw_(letter)/TKp2ez3q">waw</a></i> (ܘ) is the consonant <i>w</i>, but can also represent the vowels <i>o</i> and <i>u</i>. Likewise, the letter <a href="/facts/Yodh/mvVQfBTm"><i>yōḏ</i></a> (ܝ) represents the consonant <i>y</i>, but it also stands for the vowels <i>i</i> and <i>e</i>. </p> <h3><i>Majlīyānā</i></h3> <p>In modern usage, some alterations can be made to represent <a href="/facts/Phoneme/EXGHlJ7a">phonemes</a> not represented in <a href="/facts/Syriac_language/mLhEtdSW">classical phonology</a>. A mark similar in appearance to a <a href="/facts/Tilde/wQTx6ytR">tilde</a> (~), called <i>majlīyānā</i> (ܡܲܓ̰ܠܝܼܵܢܵܐ), is placed above or below a letter in the <i>Maḏnḥāyā</i> variant of the alphabet to change its phonetic value (see also: <i><a href="/facts/Geresh/Krlv1G2F">Geresh</a></i>): </p> <ul><li>Added below <i>gāmal</i>: [ɡ] to [d͡ʒ] (<a href="/facts/Voiced_palato-alveolar_affricate/o7oYJUqz">voiced palato-alveolar affricate</a>)</li> <li>Added below <i>kāp̄</i>: [k] to [t͡ʃ] (<a href="/facts/Voiceless_palato-alveolar_affricate/14FYMJvN">voiceless palato-alveolar affricate</a>)</li> <li>Added above or below <i>zayn</i>: [z] to [ʒ] (<a href="/facts/Voiced_palato-alveolar_sibilant/Tb8XpRoS">voiced palato-alveolar sibilant</a>)</li> <li>Added above <i>šīn</i>: [ʃ] to [ʒ]</li></ul> <h3><i>Rūkkāḵā</i> and <i>qūššāyā</i></h3> <p>In addition to foreign sounds, a marking system is used to distinguish <i>qūššāyā</i> (ܩܘܫܝܐ, 'hard' letters) from <i>rūkkāḵā</i> (ܪܘܟܟܐ, 'soft' letters). The letters <i>bēṯ</i>, <i>gāmal</i>, <i>dālaṯ</i>, <i>kāp̄</i>, <i>pē</i>, and <i>taw</i>, all <a href="/facts/Stop_consonant/okC9pztc">stop consonants</a> ('hard') are able to be 'spirantized' (<a href="/facts/Lenition/htEV4TwT">lenited</a>) into <a href="/facts/Fricative_consonant/1FQuuhfX">fricative consonants</a> ('soft'). The system involves placing a single dot underneath the letter to give its 'soft' variant and a dot above the letter to give its 'hard' variant (though, in modern usage, no mark at all is usually used to indicate the 'hard' value): </p> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="1">Name</th><th colspan="1">Stop</th><th colspan="1">Translit.</th><th colspan="1">IPA</th><th colspan="1">Name</th><th colspan="1">Fricative</th><th colspan="1">Translit.</th><th colspan="1">IPA</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td><i>Bēṯ (qšīṯā)</i></td><td>ܒ݁</td><td><i>b</i></td><td>[b]</td><td><i>Bēṯ rakkīḵtā</i></td><td>ܒ݂</td><td><i>ḇ</i></td><td>[v] or [w]</td><td>[v] has become [w] in most modern dialects.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Gāmal (qšīṯā)</i></td><td>ܓ݁</td><td><i>g</i></td><td>[ɡ]</td><td><i>Gāmal rakkīḵtā</i></td><td>ܓ݂</td><td><i>ḡ</i></td><td>[ɣ]</td><td>Usually becomes [j], [ʔ], or is not pronounced in modern Eastern dialects.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Dālaṯ (qšīṯā)</i></td><td>ܕ݁</td><td><i>d</i></td><td>[d]</td><td><i>Dālaṯ rakkīḵtā</i></td><td>ܕ݂</td><td><i>ḏ</i></td><td>[ð]</td><td>[d] is left unspirantized in some modern Eastern dialects.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Kāp̄ (qšīṯā)</i></td><td>ܟ݁</td><td><i>k</i></td><td>[k]</td><td><i>Kāp̄ rakkīḵtā</i></td><td>ܟ݂</td><td><i>ḵ</i></td><td>[x]</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>Pē (qšīṯā)</i></td><td>ܦ݁</td><td><i>p</i></td><td>[p]</td><td><i>Pē rakkīḵtā</i></td><td>ܦ݂ or ܦ̮</td><td><i>p̄</i></td><td>[f] or [w]</td><td>[f] is not found in most modern Eastern dialects. Instead, it either is left unspirantized or sometimes appears as [w]. <i>Pē</i> is the only letter in the Eastern variant of the alphabet that is spirantized by the addition of a semicircle instead of a single dot.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Taw (qšīṯā)</i></td><td>ܬ݁</td><td><i>t</i></td><td>[t]</td><td><i>Taw rakkīḵtā</i></td><td>ܬ݂</td><td><i>ṯ</i></td><td>[θ]</td><td>[t] is left unspirantized in some modern Eastern dialects.</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The mnemonic <i>bḡaḏkp̄āṯ</i> (ܒܓܕܟܦܬ) is often used to remember the six letters that are able to be spirantized (see also: <i><a href="/facts/Begadkefat/9zw2crlS">Begadkepat</a></i>). </p><p>In the East Syriac variant of the alphabet, spirantization marks are usually omitted when they interfere with vowel marks. The degree to which letters can be spirantized varies from dialect to dialect as some dialects have lost the ability for certain letters to be spirantized. For native words, spirantization depends on the letter's position within a word or syllable, location relative to other consonants and vowels, <a href="/facts/Gemination/SWW77Fxw">gemination</a>, <a href="/facts/Etymology/18QG6y67">etymology</a>, and other factors. Foreign words do not always follow the rules for spirantization. </p> <h3><i>Syāmē</i></h3> <p>Syriac uses two (usually) horizontal dots<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> above a letter within a word, similar in appearance to <a href="/facts/Diaeresis_(diacritic)/FsYeoSzC">diaeresis</a>, called <i>syāmē</i> (ܣܝ̈ܡܐ, literally 'placings', also known in some grammars by the Hebrew name <i>ribbūi</i> [רִבּוּי], 'plural'), to indicate that the word is plural.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> These dots, having no sound value in themselves, arose before both eastern and western vowel systems as it became necessary to mark plural forms of words, which are indistinguishable from their singular counterparts in regularly-inflected nouns. For instance, the word <i>malkā</i> (ܡܠܟܐ, 'king') is consonantally identical to its plural <i>malkē</i> (ܡܠܟ̈ܐ, 'kings'); the <i>syāmē</i> above the word <i>malkē</i> (ܡܠܟ̈ܐ) clarifies its grammatical number and pronunciation. Irregular plurals also receive <i>syāmē</i> even though their forms are clearly plural: e.g. <i>baytā</i> (ܒܝܬܐ, 'house') and its irregular plural <i>bāttē</i> (ܒ̈ܬܐ, 'houses'). Because of redundancy, some modern usage forgoes <i>syāmē</i> points when vowel markings are present. </p><p>There are no firm rules for which letter receives <i>syāmē</i>; the writer has full discretion to place them over any letter. Typically, if a word has at least one <i>rēš</i>, then <i>syāmē</i> are placed over the <i>rēš</i> that is nearest the end of a word (and also replace the single dot above it: ܪ̈). Other letters that often receive <i>syāmē</i> are low-rising letters—such as <i>yōḏ</i> and <i>nūn</i>—or letters that appear near the middle or end of a word. </p><p>Besides plural nouns, <i>syāmē</i> are also placed on: </p> <ul><li>plural adjectives, including participles (except masculine plural adjectives/participles in the <a href="/facts/Absolute_state/duxG0U0K">absolute state</a>);</li> <li>the cardinal numbers 'two' and the feminine forms of 11–19, though inconsistently;</li> <li>and certain feminine plural verbs: the 3rd person feminine plural perfect and the 2nd and 3rd person feminine plural imperfect.</li></ul> <h3><i>Mṭalqānā</i></h3> <p>Syriac uses a line, called <i>mṭalqānā</i> (ܡܛܠܩܢܐ, literally 'concealer', also known by the <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> term <i>linea occultans</i> in some grammars), to indicate a <a href="/facts/Silent_letter/AYMJ0GDP">silent letter</a> that can occur at the beginning or middle of a word.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> In Eastern Syriac, this line is diagonal and only occurs above the silent letter (e.g. ܡܕ݂ܝܼܢ݇ܬܵܐ, 'city', pronounced <i>mḏīttā</i>, not *<i>mḏīntā</i>, with the <i>mṭalqānā</i> over the <i>nūn</i>, <a href="/facts/Assimilation_(phonology)/YxIy0MBv">assimilating</a> with the <i>taw</i>). The line can only occur above a letter <i>ʾālep̄</i>, <i>hē</i>, <i>waw</i>, <i>yōḏ</i>, <i>lāmaḏ</i>, <i>mīm</i>, <i>nūn</i>, <i>ʿē</i> or <i>rēš</i> (which comprise the mnemonic ܥܡ̈ܠܝ ܢܘܗܪܐ <i>ʿamlay nūhrā</i>, 'the works of light'). In Western Syriac, this line is horizontal and can be placed above or below the letter (e.g. ܡܕ݂ܺܝܢ̄ܬܳܐ, 'city', pronounced <i>mḏīto</i>, not *<i>mḏīnto</i>). </p><p>Classically, <i>mṭalqānā</i> was not used for silent letters that occurred at the end of a word (e.g. ܡܪܝ <i>mār[ī]</i>, '[my] lord'). In modern <a href="/facts/Turoyo_language/I8WTq4LX">Turoyo</a>, however, this is not always the case (e.g. ܡܳܪܝ̱ <i>mor[ī]</i>, '[my] lord'). </p> <h2 id="latin-alphabet-and-romanization">Latin alphabet and romanization</h2> <p>In the 1930s, a <a href="/facts/Latin_alphabet/pqWVHpBz">Latin alphabet</a> for Syriac was <a href="/facts/Romanization/a4fl8fee">developed</a> with some material promulgated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Although it did not supplant the Syriac script, the usage of the Latin script in the Syriac community has still become widespread because most of the <a href="/facts/Assyrian_diaspora/sFkTkLQv">Assyrian diaspora</a> is in <a href="/facts/Europe/DTAtrKfh">Europe</a> and the <a href="/facts/Anglosphere/mRuTW7Y5">Anglosphere</a>, where the Latin alphabet is predominant. </p><p>In Syriac romanization, some letters are altered and would feature <a href="/facts/Diacritics/Rw6lMzQW">diacritics</a> and macrons to indicate long vowels, schwas and <a href="/facts/Diphthongs/K8tWRvsx">diphthongs</a>. The letters with diacritics and macrons are mostly upheld in educational or formal writing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> Soviet Latin alphabet<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><td>A</td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td><a href="/facts/%C3%87/2e7jmUaG">Ç</a></td><td>D</td><td>E</td><td>Ə</td><td>F</td><td>G</td><td>H</td><td>I</td><td>J</td><td>K</td><td>L</td><td>M</td><td>N</td><td>O</td><td>P</td><td>Q</td><td>R</td><td>S</td><td><a href="/facts/%C5%9E/1DcekgEL">Ş</a></td><td>T</td><td><a href="/facts/T-comma/zRhC16xb">Ț</a></td><td>U</td><td>V</td><td>X</td><td>Z</td><td><a href="/facts/%C6%B5/Bf1NUwpT">Ƶ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/I_with_bowl/80VlzSNR">Ь</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Latin letters below are commonly used when it comes to <a href="/facts/Transliteration/1eemsW6o">transliteration</a> from the Syriac script to <a href="/facts/Latin_script/7EWeJjUV">Latin</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> Transliterated Syriac-Latin alphabet<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><td>A</td><td><a href="/facts/%C4%80/2R3BU1nc">Ā</a></td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>D</td><td><a href="/facts/%E1%B8%8E/A6hNvmCp">Ḏ</a></td><td>E</td><td><a href="/facts/%C4%92/0G2cAFzu">Ē</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%C3%8B/0G2cAFzu">Ë</a></td><td>F</td><td>G</td><td>H</td><td><a href="/facts/%E1%B8%A4/2ReerlNA">Ḥ</a></td><td>I</td><td>J</td><td>K</td><td>L</td><td>M</td><td>N</td><td>O</td><td><a href="/facts/%C5%8C/41AF4mKp">Ō</a></td><td>P</td><td>Q</td><td>R</td><td>S</td><td><a href="/facts/%C5%A0/1DcekgEL">Š</a></td><td><a href="/facts/%E1%B9%A2/1DcekgEL">Ṣ</a></td><td>T</td><td><a href="/facts/%E1%B9%AC/1GaDe2Vy">Ṭ</a></td><td>U</td><td><a href="/facts/%C5%AA/41AF4mKp">Ū</a></td><td>V</td><td>W</td><td>X</td><td>Y</td><td>Z</td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Ā is used to denote a long "a" sound or [ɑː] as heard in "car".</li> <li>Ḏ is used to represent a <a href="/facts/Voiced_dental_fricative/MTJup6oV">voiced dental fricative</a> [ð], the "th" sound as heard in "that".</li> <li>Ē is used to denote a long close-mid unrounded vowel, [eː].</li> <li>Ĕ is to represent an "eh" sound or [ɛ], as heard in <i><a href="/facts/Nineveh/yl44Guzj">Ninwĕ</a></i></li> <li>Ḥ represents a <a href="/facts/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative/Y2qSAoED">voiceless pharyngeal fricative</a> ([ħ]), only upheld by Turoyo and Chaldean speakers.</li> <li>Ō represents a long "o" sound or [ɔː].</li> <li>Š is a <a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative/enUwqS2w">voiceless postalveolar fricative</a> ([ʃ]), the English digraph "sh".</li> <li>Ṣ denotes an <a href="/facts/Emphatic_consonant/xCSeW8Kf">emphatic</a> "s" or "thick s", [sˤ].</li> <li>Ṭ is an emphatic "t", [tˤ], as heard in the word <i>ṭla</i> ("three").</li> <li>Ū is used to represent an "oo" sound or the <a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">close back rounded vowel</a> [uː].</li></ul> <p>Sometimes additional letters may be used and they tend to be: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/%E1%B8%86/Bf1NUwpT">Ḇ</a> may be used in the transliteration of <a href="/facts/Biblical_Aramaic/HIY3pc0V">biblical Aramaic</a> to show the <a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_fricative/2ljHM92m">voiced bilabial fricative</a> <a href="/facts/Allophone/2gp1p5PN">allophone</a> value ("v") of the letter <i>Bēṯ</i>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/%C4%AA/2w7mqI7e">Ī</a> denotes a <a href="/facts/Schwa/5TvL9LSb">schwa</a> sound, usually when transliterating biblical Aramaic.</li> <li><a href="/facts/%E1%B8%B4/68UJI9sK">Ḵ</a> is utilized for the <a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_fricative/mrKPhobk">voiceless velar fricative</a>, [x], or the "kh" sound.</li> <li><a href="/facts/%E1%B9%AE/1GaDe2Vy">Ṯ</a> is used to denote the "th" sound or the <a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_fricative/hmQpb6pI">voiceless dental fricative</a>, [θ].</li></ul> <h2 id="unicode">Unicode</h2> <p>The Syriac alphabet was added to the <a href="/facts/Unicode/DDu3MfPV">Unicode</a> Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0. Additional letters for Suriyani Malayalam were added in June, 2017 with the release of version 10.0. </p> <h3>Blocks</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Syriac_(Unicode_block)/62jmpVIP">Syriac (Unicode block)</a> and <a href="/facts/Syriac_Supplement/7ALX8sVr">Syriac Supplement (Unicode block)</a></p> <p>The Unicode block for Syriac is U+0700–U+074F: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td colspan="17"><a href="/facts/Syriac_(Unicode_block)/62jmpVIP">Syriac</a>[1][2]<a href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0700.pdf">Official Unicode Consortium code chart</a> (PDF)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>A</td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>D</td><td>E</td><td>F</td></tr><tr><td>U+070x</td><td>܀</td><td>܁</td><td>܂</td><td>܃</td><td>܄</td><td>܅</td><td>܆</td><td>܇</td><td>܈</td><td>܉</td><td>܊</td><td>܋</td><td>܌</td><td>܍</td><td></td><td>SAM</td></tr><tr><td>U+071x</td><td>ܐ</td><td>ܑ</td><td>ܒ</td><td>ܓ</td><td>ܔ</td><td>ܕ</td><td>ܖ</td><td>ܗ</td><td>ܘ</td><td>ܙ</td><td>ܚ</td><td>ܛ</td><td>ܜ</td><td>ܝ</td><td>ܞ</td><td>ܟ</td></tr><tr><td>U+072x</td><td>ܠ</td><td>ܡ</td><td>ܢ</td><td>ܣ</td><td>ܤ</td><td>ܥ</td><td>ܦ</td><td>ܧ</td><td>ܨ</td><td>ܩ</td><td>ܪ</td><td>ܫ</td><td>ܬ</td><td>ܭ</td><td>ܮ</td><td>ܯ</td></tr><tr><td>U+073x</td><td>ܰ</td><td>ܱ</td><td>ܲ</td><td>ܳ</td><td>ܴ</td><td>ܵ</td><td>ܶ</td><td>ܷ</td><td>ܸ</td><td>ܹ</td><td>ܺ</td><td>ܻ</td><td>ܼ</td><td>ܽ</td><td>ܾ</td><td>ܿ</td></tr><tr><td>U+074x</td><td>݀</td><td>݁</td><td>݂</td><td>݃</td><td>݄</td><td>݅</td><td>݆</td><td>݇</td><td>݈</td><td>݉</td><td>݊</td><td></td><td></td><td>ݍ</td><td>ݎ</td><td>ݏ</td></tr><tr><td colspan="17">Notes1.^ As of Unicode version 16.02.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Syriac Abbreviation (a type of <a href="/facts/Overline/PH46XuIu">overline</a>) can be represented with a special control character called the <a href="/facts/Syriac_Abbreviation_Mark/jbBMX1qT">Syriac Abbreviation Mark</a> (U+070F). </p><p>The Unicode block for Suriyani Malayalam specific letters is called the Syriac Supplement block and is U+0860–U+086F: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td colspan="17"><a href="/facts/Syriac_Supplement/7ALX8sVr">Syriac Supplement</a>[1][2]<a href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0860.pdf">Official Unicode Consortium code chart</a> (PDF)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>A</td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>D</td><td>E</td><td>F</td></tr><tr><td>U+086x</td><td>ࡠ</td><td>ࡡ</td><td>ࡢ</td><td>ࡣ</td><td>ࡤ</td><td>ࡥ</td><td>ࡦ</td><td>ࡧ</td><td>ࡨ</td><td>ࡩ</td><td>ࡪ</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="17">Notes1.^ As of Unicode version 16.02.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>HTML code table</h3> <p>Note: <a href="/facts/Character_encodings_in_HTML/KQhXu9X4">HTML numeric character references</a> can be in decimal format (&#<i>DDDD</i>;) or hexadecimal format (&#x<i>HHHH</i>;). For example, ܕ and ܕ (1813 in decimal) both represent U+0715 SYRIAC LETTER DALATH. </p> <h4><i>Ālep̄ bēṯ</i></h4> <table><tbody><tr><td>ܕ</td><td>ܓ</td><td>ܒ</td><td>ܐ</td></tr><tr><th>ܕ</th><th>ܓ</th><th>ܒ</th><th>ܐ</th></tr><tr><td>ܚ</td><td>ܙ</td><td>ܘ</td><td>ܗ</td></tr><tr><th>ܚ</th><th>ܙ</th><th>ܘ</th><th>ܗ</th></tr><tr><td>ܠ</td><td>ܟܟ</td><td>ܝ</td><td>ܛ</td></tr><tr><th>ܠ</th><th>ܟ</th><th>ܝ</th><th>ܛ</th></tr><tr><td>ܥ</td><td>ܣ</td><td>ܢܢ</td><td>ܡܡ</td></tr><tr><th>ܥ</th><th>ܤ</th><th>ܢ</th><th>ܡ</th></tr><tr><td>ܪ</td><td>ܩ</td><td>ܨ</td><td>ܦ</td></tr><tr><th>ܪ</th><th>ܩ</th><th>ܨ</th><th>ܦ</th></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>ܬ</td><td>ܫ</td></tr><tr><th></th><th></th><th>ܬ</th><th>ܫ</th></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Vowels and unique characters</h4> <table><tbody><tr><td>ܲ</td><td>ܵ</td></tr><tr><th>ܲ</th><th>ܵ</th></tr><tr><td>ܸ</td><td>ܹ</td></tr><tr><th>ܸ</th><th>ܹ</th></tr><tr><td>ܼ</td><td>ܿ</td></tr><tr><th>ܼ</th><th>ܿ</th></tr><tr><td>̈</td><td>̰</td></tr><tr><th>̈</th><th>̰</th></tr><tr><td>݁</td><td>݂</td></tr><tr><th>݁</th><th>݂</th></tr><tr><td>܀</td><td>܂</td></tr><tr><th>܀</th><th>܂</th></tr><tr><td>܄</td><td>݇</td></tr><tr><th>܄</th><th>݇</th></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Abjad/Hn50ebWn">Abjad</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Alphabet/vqfRpS3E">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Aramaic_alphabet/hoqRfbYP">Aramaic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mandaic_alphabet/Q53PUJYE">Mandaic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mongolian_script/QFFR5rwl">Mongolian script</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sogdian_alphabet/fMM61MF8">Sogdian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Syriac_language/mLhEtdSW">Syriac language</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Suriyani_Malayalam/Iy3xdVJk">Syriac Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Old_Uyghur_alphabet/hDIt5gbd">Old Uyghur alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/History_of_the_alphabet/8zeelL9y">History of the alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/List_of_writing_systems/lMVN4qrb">List of writing systems</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="sources">Sources</h2> <ul><li>Coakley, J. F. (2002). <i>Robinson's Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar</i> (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-926129-1.</li> <li><a href="/facts/William_Hatch_(theologian)/1pvuIXyV">Hatch, William</a> (1946). <i>An Album of Dated Syriac Manuscripts</i>. Boston: The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, reprinted in 2002 by Gorgias Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-931956-53-7.</li> <li><a href="/facts/George_Kiraz/phS9uHAv">Kiraz, George</a> (2015). <i>The Syriac Dot: a Short History</i>. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4632-0425-9.</li> <li>Michaelis, Ioannis Davidis (1784). <i>Grammatica Syriaca</i>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Eberhard_Nestle/nr8jgoGD">Nestle, Eberhard</a> (1888). <i>Syrische Grammatik mit Litteratur, Chrestomathie und Glossar</i>. Berlin: H. Reuther's Verlagsbuchhandlung. [translated to English as <i>Syriac grammar with bibliography, chrestomathy and glossary</i>, by R. S. Kennedy. London: Williams & Norgate 1889].</li> <li><a href="/facts/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke/0n62ww7C">Nöldeke, Theodor</a> and Julius Euting (1880). <i>Kurzgefasste syrische Grammatik</i>. Leipzig: T.O. Weigel. [translated to English as <i>Compendious Syriac Grammar</i>, by James A. Crichton. London: Williams & Norgate 1904. 2003 edition: <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-57506-050-7].</li> <li>Phillips, George (1866). <i>A Syriac Grammar</i>. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, & Co.; London: Bell & Daldy.</li> <li>Robinson, Theodore Henry (1915). <i>Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-19-926129-6.</li> <li>Rudder, Joshua. <i>Learn to Write Aramaic: A Step-by-Step Approach to the Historical & Modern Scripts</i>. n.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011. 220 pp. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1461021421 Includes the Estrangela (pp. 59–113), Madnhaya (pp. 191–206), and the Western Serto (pp. 173–190) scripts.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Judah_Segal/ulqH2V4z">Segal, J. B.</a> (1953). <i>The Diacritical Point and the Accents in Syriac.</i> Oxford University Press, reprinted in 2003 by Gorgias Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-59333-032-4.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Wheeler_Thackston/J3E6TEmC">Thackston, Wheeler M.</a> (1999). <i>Introduction to Syriac</i>. Bethesda, MD: Ibex Publishers, Inc. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-936347-98-8.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Syriac alphabet. <ul><li><a href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/syriac.htm">The Syriac alphabet</a> at <a href="http://www.omniglot.com/">Omniglot.com</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120812195043/http://www.ancientscripts.com/syriac.html">The Syriac alphabet</a> at <a href="http://ancientscripts.com/index.html">Ancientscripts.com</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060617231514/http://tlt.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/syriacchart.html">Unicode Entity Codes for the Syriac Script</a></li> <li><a href="https://bethmardutho.org/meltho/">Meltho Fonts for Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.nativlang.com/aramaic-language/aramaic-writing-cursive.php">How to write Aramaic – learn the Syriac cursive scripts</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/syriac_writing.html">Aramaic and Syriac handwriting</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180723101649/http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/syriac_writing.html">Archived</a> 2018-07-23 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a> <i>ʾEsṭrangēlā</i> (classical)</li> <li><a href="http://www.learnassyrian.com/aramaic/">Learn Assyrian (Syriac-Aramaic) OnLine</a> <i>Maḏnḥāyā</i> (eastern)</li> <li><a href="https://www.gnu.org/software/freefont/">GNU FreeFont</a> Unicode font family with Syriac range in its sans-serif face.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Assyrian/Latin_Alphabet">Learn Syriac Latin Alphabet</a> on <a href="/facts/Wikiversity/buV7CGAn">Wikiversity</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Also ܐܒܓܕ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ ʾabgad Sūryāyā. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Syriac alphabet". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved June 16, 2012. <a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578972/Syriac-alphabet" target="_blank">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578972/Syriac-alphabet</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>P. R. Ackroyd, C. F. Evans (1975). The Cambridge History of the Bible: Volume 1, From the Beginnings to Jerome. Cambridge University Press. p. 26. ISBN 9780521099738. <a href="9780521099738" target="_blank">9780521099738</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Maissun Melhem (21 January 2010). "Schriftenstreit in Syrien" (in German). Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 15 November 2023. Several years ago, the political leadership in Syria decided to establish an institute where Aramaic could be learned. Rizkalla was tasked with writing a textbook, primarily drawing upon his native language proficiency. For the script, he chose Hebrew letters. <a href="https://www.dw.com/de/schriftenstreit-in-syrien/a-5166405" target="_blank">https://www.dw.com/de/schriftenstreit-in-syrien/a-5166405</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Oriens Christianus (in German). 2003. p. 77. As the villages are very small, located close to each other, and the three dialects are mutually intelligible, there has never been the creation of a script or a standard language. Aramaic is the unwritten village dialect... <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Also pronounced/transliterated Estrangelo in Western Syriac. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Hatch, William (1946). An Album of Dated Syriac Manuscripts. Boston: The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, reprinted in 2002 by Gorgias Press. p. 24. ISBN 1-931956-53-7. <a href="/wiki/William_Hatch_(theologian)" target="_blank">/wiki/William_Hatch_(theologian)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Nestle, Eberhard (1888). Syrische Grammatik mit Litteratur, Chrestomathie und Glossar. Berlin: H. Reuther's Verlagsbuchhandlung. [translated to English as Syriac grammar with bibliography, chrestomathy and glossary, by R. S. Kennedy. London: Williams & Norgate 1889. p. 5]. <a href="/wiki/Eberhard_Nestle" target="_blank">/wiki/Eberhard_Nestle</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Coakley, J. F. (2002). Robinson's Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-19-926129-1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Also pronounced ʾĀlap̄ or ʾOlaf (ܐܳܠܰܦ) in Western Syriac. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Among most Assyrian Neo-Aramaic speakers, the pharyngeal sound of ʿĒ (/ʕ/) is not pronounced as such; rather, it typically merges into the plain sound of ʾĀlep̄ ([ʔ] or ∅) or geminates a previous consonant. <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" target="_blank">/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>In the final position following Dālaṯ or Rēš, ʾĀlep̄ takes the normal form rather than the final form in the Maḏnḥāyā variant of the alphabet. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>In some Serṭā usages, the syāmē dots are placed diagonally when they appear above the letter Lāmaḏ. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Nöldeke, Theodor and Julius Euting (1880). Kurzgefasste syrische Grammatik. Leipzig: T.O. Weigel. [translated to English as Compendious Syriac Grammar, by James A. Crichton. London: Williams & Norgate 1904. 2003 edition. pp. 10–11. ISBN 1-57506-050-7] <a href="/wiki/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke" target="_blank">/wiki/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Nöldeke, Theodor and Julius Euting (1880). Kurzgefasste syrische Grammatik. Leipzig: T.O. Weigel. [translated to English as Compendious Syriac Grammar, by James A. Crichton. London: Williams & Norgate 1904. 2003 edition. pp. 11–12. ISBN 1-57506-050-7] <a href="/wiki/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke" target="_blank">/wiki/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Moscati, Sabatino, et al. The Comparative Grammar of Semitic Languages. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, Germany, 1980. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>S. P. Brock, "Three Thousand Years of Aramaic literature", in Aram,1:1 (1989) <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Friedrich, Johannes (1959). "Neusyrisches in Lateinschrift aus der Sowjetunion". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft (in German) (109): 50–81. <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Friedrich_(linguist)" target="_blank">/wiki/Johannes_Friedrich_(linguist)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Polotsky, Hans Jakob (1961). "Studies in Modern Syriac". Journal of Semitic Studies. 6 (1): 1–32. doi:10.1093/jss/6.1.1. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Jakob_Polotsky" target="_blank">/wiki/Hans_Jakob_Polotsky</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Syriac Romanization Table <a href="https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/syriac.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/syriac.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Nicholas Awde; Nineb Lamassu; Nicholas Al-Jeloo (2007). Aramaic (Assyrian/Syriac) Dictionary & Phrasebook: Swadaya-English, Turoyo-English, English-Swadaya-Turoyo. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-7818-1087-6. <a href="978-0-7818-1087-6" target="_blank">978-0-7818-1087-6</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>