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Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <h3>Early Dynasty XVIII</h3> <p>Dynasty XVIII was founded by <a href="/facts/Ahmose_I/NDFbjWjo">Ahmose I</a>, the brother or son of <a href="/facts/Kamose/jWVJC39n">Kamose</a>, the last ruler of the <a href="/facts/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt/jhcIl1As">17th Dynasty</a>. Ahmose finished the campaign to expel the <a href="/facts/Hyksos/ovB4Sp5J">Hyksos</a> rulers. His reign is seen as the end of the <a href="/facts/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt/gKX4X08u">Second Intermediate Period</a> and the start of the New Kingdom. Ahmose's consort, Queen <a href="/facts/Ahmose-Nefertari/4JFUXBMy">Ahmose-Nefertari</a> was "arguably the most venerated woman in Egyptian history, and the grandmother of the 18th Dynasty."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> She was deified after she died. Ahmose was succeeded by his son, <a href="/facts/Amenhotep_I/Uje4PVxP">Amenhotep I</a>, whose reign was relatively uneventful.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p><p>Amenhotep I probably left no male heir and the next pharaoh, <a href="/facts/Thutmose_I/uSBFpwKA">Thutmose I</a>, seems to have been related to the royal family through marriage. During his reign, the borders of Egypt's empire reached their greatest expanse, extending in the north to <a href="/facts/Carchemish/HEo81bVq">Carchemish</a> on the <a href="/facts/Euphrates/RbCk68gt">Euphrates</a> and in the south up to <a href="/facts/Kanisah_Kurgus/0AHktWgP">Kanisah Kurgus</a> beyond the fourth <a href="/facts/Cataracts_of_the_Nile/cedENCx8">cataract</a> of the Nile. Thutmose I was succeeded by <a href="/facts/Thutmose_II/u1C2bYPP">Thutmose II</a> and his queen, <a href="/facts/Hatshepsut/rNekT72F">Hatshepsut</a>, who was the daughter of Thutmose I. After her husband's death and a period of regency for her minor stepson (who would later become pharaoh as Thutmose III) Hatshepsut became pharaoh in her own right and ruled for over twenty years. </p><p><a href="/facts/Thutmose_III/edxr341W">Thutmose III</a>, who became known as the greatest military pharaoh ever, also had a lengthy reign after becoming pharaoh. He had a second co-regency in his old age with his son <a href="/facts/Amenhotep_II/gBXUExLV">Amenhotep II</a>. Amenhotep II was succeeded by <a href="/facts/Thutmose_IV/GB8daF2y">Thutmose IV</a>, who in his turn was followed by his son <a href="/facts/Amenhotep_III/fJckzGAz">Amenhotep III</a>, whose reign is seen as a high point in this dynasty. </p><p>Amenhotep III's reign was a period of unprecedented prosperity, artistic splendor, and international power, as attested by over 250 statues (more than any other pharaoh) and 200 large stone scarabs discovered from Syria to Nubia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Amenhotep III undertook large scale building programmes, the extent of which can only be compared with those of the much longer reign of <a href="/facts/Ramesses_II/xfRGwfTu">Ramesses II</a> during Dynasty XIX.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> Amenhotep III's consort was the Great Royal Wife <a href="/facts/Tiye/ndEVcvmL">Tiye</a>, for whom he built an artificial lake, as described on eleven scarabs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h3>Akhenaten, the Amarna Period, and Tutankhamun</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Amarna_Period/jfuG91UN">Amarna Period</a></p> <p>Amenhotep III may have shared the throne for up to twelve years with his son Amenhotep IV. There is much debate about this proposed co-regency, with different experts considering that there was a lengthy co-regency, a short one, or none at all. </p><p>In the fifth year of his reign, Amenhotep IV changed his name to <a href="/facts/Akhenaten/huu7JVtN">Akhenaten</a> (<i>ꜣḫ-n-jtn</i>, "Effective for the <a href="/facts/Aten/5V3PyCp1">Aten</a>") and moved his capital to <a href="/facts/Amarna/InuDpBlV">Amarna</a>, which he named Akhetaten. During the reign of Akhenaten, the <a href="/facts/Aten/5V3PyCp1">Aten</a> (jtn, the sun disk) became, first, the most prominent deity, and eventually came to be considered the only god.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Whether this amounted to true monotheism continues to be the subject of debate within the academic community. Some state that Akhenaten created a monotheism, while others point out that he merely suppressed a dominant solar cult by the assertion of another, while he never completely abandoned several other traditional deities. </p><p>Later Egyptians considered this "<a href="/facts/Amarna_Period/jfuG91UN">Amarna Period</a>" an unfortunate aberration. After his death, Akhenaten was succeeded by two short-lived pharaohs, <a href="/facts/Smenkhkare/JBxJQtFk">Smenkhkare</a> and <a href="/facts/Neferneferuaten/l89aA4nQ">Neferneferuaten</a>, of which little is known. In 1334 Akhenaten's son, Tutankhaten, ascended to the throne: shortly after, he restored Egyptian polytheist cult and subsequently changed his name in <a href="/facts/Tutankhamun/lD17fY2r">Tutankhamun</a>, in honor to the Egyptian god <a href="/facts/Amun/e9HKGJJj">Amun</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> <a href="/facts/317a_and_317b_mummies/8WtotCxm">His infant daughters</a> represent the final genetically related generation of the Eighteenth Dynasty. </p> <h3>Ay and Horemheb</h3> <p>The last two members of the Eighteenth Dynasty—<a href="/facts/Ay_(pharaoh)/H6vArT0p">Ay</a> and <a href="/facts/Horemheb/aX6AaKnY">Horemheb</a>—became rulers from the ranks of officials in the royal court, although Ay might also have been the maternal uncle of Akhenaten as a fellow descendant of <a href="/facts/Yuya/AHNUBxkW">Yuya</a> and <a href="/facts/Tjuyu/Pl1nEWQp">Tjuyu</a>. </p><p>Ay may have married the widowed Great Royal Wife and young half-sister of Tutankhamun, <a href="/facts/Ankhesenamun/KWQpA5fU">Ankhesenamun</a>, in order to obtain power; she did not live long afterward. Ay then married <a href="/facts/Tey/HGtfFugl">Tey</a>, who was originally Nefertiti's wet-nurse. </p><p>Ay's reign was short. His successor was Horemheb, a general during Tutankhamun's reign whom the pharaoh may have intended as his successor in case he had no surviving children, which is what came to pass.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Horemheb may have taken the throne away from Ay in a <a href="/facts/Coup_d%2527%25C3%25A9tat/eUK9HBw7">coup d'état</a>. Although Ay's son or stepson <a href="/facts/Nakhtmin/rW8cWMLl">Nakhtmin</a> was named as his father/stepfather's Crown Prince, Nakhtmin seems to have died during the reign of Ay, leaving the opportunity for Horemheb to claim the throne next. </p><p>Horemheb also died without surviving children, having appointed his vizier, Pa-ra-mes-su, as his heir. This vizier ascended the throne in 1292 BC as <a href="/facts/Ramesses_I/MDdphJ6o">Ramesses I</a>, and was the first pharaoh of the <a href="/facts/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt/owcVjU3V">Nineteenth Dynasty</a>. </p><p>This example to the right depicts a man named Ay who achieved the exalted religious positions of <a href="/facts/Second_Prophet_of_Amun/ynaAK6vp">Second Prophet of Amun</a> and High Priest of <a href="/facts/Mut/PqwD0VHB">Mut</a> at <a href="/facts/Thebes%2c_Egypt/SkdRYU22">Thebes</a>. His career flourished during the reign of Tutankhamun, when the statue was made. The cartouches of King Ay, Tutankhamun's successor appearing on the statue, were an attempt by an artisan to "update" the sculpture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p> <h3>Relations with Nubia</h3> <p>The Eighteenth Dynasty empire conquered all of Lower <a href="/facts/Nubia/Hmc5JIHK">Nubia</a> under <a href="/facts/Thutmose_I/uSBFpwKA">Thutmose I</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> By the reign of <a href="/facts/Thutmose_III/edxr341W">Thutmose III</a>, the Egyptians directly controlled Nubia to the Nile river, 4th cataract, with Egyptian influence / tributaries extending beyond this point.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> The Egyptians referred to the area as <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Kush/8BorCh8R">Kush</a> and it was administered by the <a href="/facts/Viceroy_of_Kush/EN17dnnJ">Viceroy of Kush</a>. The 18th dynasty obtained Nubian gold, animal skins, ivory, ebony, cattle, and horses, which were of exceptional quality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> The Egyptians built temples throughout Nubia. One of the largest and most important temples was dedicated to Amun at <a href="/facts/Jebel_Barkal/x2qef45C">Jebel Barkal</a> in the city of Napata. This <a href="/facts/Temple_of_Amun%2c_Jebel_Barkal/FqEJgA7R">Temple of Amun</a> was enlarged by later Egyptian and Nubian Pharaohs, such as <a href="/facts/Taharqa/ycECB86a">Taharqa</a>. </p> <h3>Relations with the Near-East</h3> <p>After the end of the <a href="/facts/Hyksos/ovB4Sp5J">Hyksos</a> period of foreign rule, the Eighteenth Dynasty engaged in a vigorous phase of expansionism, conquering vast areas of the <a href="/facts/Near-East/gD1vyGQI">Near-East</a>, with especially Pharaoh <a href="/facts/Thutmose_III/edxr341W">Thutmose III</a> submitting the "Shasu" Bedouins of northern <a href="/facts/Canaan/PyX3f92e">Canaan</a>, and the land of <a href="/facts/Retjenu/Gwk55IR8">Retjenu</a>, as far as <a href="/facts/Syria/7pDXGzq8">Syria</a> and <a href="/facts/Mittani/0RJetPUC">Mittani</a> in numerous military campaigns circa 1450 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="dating">Dating</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Radiocarbon_dating/qjNglhKP">Radiocarbon dating</a> suggests that Dynasty XVIII may have started a few years earlier than the conventional date of 1550 BC. The radiocarbon date range for its beginning is 1570–1544 BC, the mean point of which is 1557 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="pharaohs-of-the-18th-dynasty">Pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/List_of_pharaohs/b4qU2CtJ">List of pharaohs § Eighteenth dynasty</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree/YhpjxVpR">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree</a></p> <p>The pharaohs of Dynasty XVIII ruled for approximately 250 years (c. 1550–1298 BC). The dates and names in the table are taken from Dodson and Hilton.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Many of the pharaohs were buried in the <a href="/facts/Valley_of_the_Kings/HSRFL5hP">Valley of the Kings</a> in Thebes (designated KV). More information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Several diplomatic marriages are known for the <a href="/facts/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt/8cpKbCI0">New Kingdom</a>. These daughters of foreign kings are often only mentioned in cuneiform texts and are not known from other sources. The marriages were likely to have been a way to confirm good relations between these states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> Dynasty XVIII Kings of Egypt<table><tbody><tr><th scope="col">Pharaoh</th><th scope="col">Image</th><th scope="col"><a href="/facts/Prenomen_(Ancient_Egypt)/nvlFuxg1">Prenomen</a> (Throne name)</th><th scope="col"><a href="/facts/Horus_name/Gzwt2WTx">Horus-name</a></th><th scope="col">Reign</th><th scope="col">Burial</th><th scope="col">Consort(s)</th><th scope="col">Comments</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ahmose_I/NDFbjWjo">Ahmose I</a> / Ahmosis I</td><td></td><td>Nebpehtire</td><td>Aakheperu</td><td>1549–1524 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Dra%2527_Abu_el-Naga%2527/XhvS09Es">Dra' Abu el-Naga'</a>?</td><td><a href="/facts/Ahmose-Nefertari/4JFUXBMy">Ahmose-Nefertari</a> <a href="/facts/Ahmose-Henuttamehu/x3auASxH">Ahmose-Henuttamehu</a> <a href="/facts/Ahmose-Sitkamose/wqk6B69v">Ahmose-Sitkamose</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Amenhotep_I/Uje4PVxP">Amenhotep I</a></td><td></td><td>Djeserkare</td><td>Kauwaftau</td><td>1524–1503 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Tomb_ANB/sKn3r30q">Tomb ANB</a>? or <a href="/facts/KV39/HTPmQxDe">KV39</a>?</td><td><a href="/facts/Ahmose-Meritamon/PXvk3eDg">Ahmose-Meritamon</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Thutmose_I/uSBFpwKA">Thutmose I</a></td><td></td><td>Aakheperkare</td><td>Kanakhtmerymaat</td><td>1503–1493 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV20/uF4QWAkM">KV20</a>, <a href="/facts/KV38/NaIdG6qr">KV38</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Ahmose_(queen)/LPQtFhdC">Ahmose</a> <a href="/facts/Mutnofret/cwg9b4zw">Mutnofret</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Thutmose_II/u1C2bYPP">Thutmose II</a></td><td></td><td>Aakheperenre</td><td>Kanakhtuserpehty</td><td>1493–1479 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Tomb_of_Thutmose_II/XqNTl5Av">Wadi C-4</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hatshepsut/rNekT72F">Hatshepsut</a> <a href="/facts/Iset_(queen)/1tQXdc2z">Iset</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Hatshepsut/rNekT72F">Hatshepsut</a></td><td></td><td>Maatkare</td><td>Useretkau</td><td>1479–1458 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV20/uF4QWAkM">KV20</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Thutmose_II/u1C2bYPP">Thutmose II</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Thutmose_III/edxr341W">Thutmose III</a></td><td></td><td>Menkheper(en)re</td><td>Kanakhtkhaemwaset</td><td>1479–1425 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV34/NISX3Kok">KV34</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Satiah/cE6Pu5Xn">Satiah</a> <a href="/facts/Merytre-Hatshepsut/7k7LxjEq">Merytre-Hatshepsut</a> <a href="/facts/Nebtu/NekgrUQC">Nebtu</a> <a href="/facts/Menhet%2c_Menwi_and_Merti/hExzRbX0">Menhet, Menwi and Merti</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Amenhotep_II/gBXUExLV">Amenhotep II</a></td><td></td><td>Aakheperure</td><td>Kanakhtwerpehty</td><td>1427–1397 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV35/fMENawzr">KV35</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Tiaa/3P81bdKT">Tiaa</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Thutmose_IV/GB8daF2y">Thutmose IV</a></td><td></td><td>Menkheperure</td><td>Kanakhttutkhau</td><td>1397–1388 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV43/D7NpEzTL">KV43</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Nefertari_(18th_dynasty)/QCemqmdQ">Nefertari</a> <a href="/facts/Iaret/uPT5cuh7">Iaret</a> <a href="/facts/Mutemwiya/5RCTcrBu">Mutemwiya</a> Daughter of <a href="/facts/Artatama_I/0kLIxtya">Artatama I</a> of Mitanni</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Amenhotep_III/fJckzGAz">Amenhotep III</a></td><td></td><td>Nebmaatre</td><td>Kanakhtkhaemmaat</td><td>1388–1351 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV22/TTzSWMJE">KV22</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Tiye/ndEVcvmL">Tiye</a> <a href="/facts/Gilukhipa/VJ9SKntj">Gilukhipa</a> of Mitanni <a href="/facts/Tadukhipa/xVA1krv9">Tadukhipa</a> of Mitanni <a href="/facts/Sitamun/qJwuAFPX">Sitamun</a> <a href="/facts/Iset_(daughter_of_Amenhotep_III)/3cNHJ9cB">Iset</a> Daughter of <a href="/facts/Kurigalzu_I/jABgdTHJ">Kurigalzu I</a> of Babylon<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Daughter of <a href="/facts/Kadashman-Enlil/Altt8Ayx">Kadashman-Enlil</a> of Babylon<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Daughter of <a href="/facts/Tarhundaradu/TVHdf5kg">Tarhundaradu</a> of <a href="/facts/Arzawa/K7vXdmtu">Arzawa</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> Daughter of the ruler of Ammia<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Akhenaten/huu7JVtN">Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten</a></td><td></td><td>Neferkepherure-Waenre</td><td>Kanakhtqaishuti (originally)Meryaten (later)</td><td>1351–1334 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Royal_Tomb_of_Akhenaten/DfNdLdV7">Royal Tomb of Akhenaten</a>, <a href="/facts/KV55/QjvKwNRW">KV55</a> (?)</td><td><a href="/facts/Nefertiti/fgAWVJXY">Nefertiti</a> <a href="/facts/Kiya/5m3bmveY">Kiya</a> <a href="/facts/Tadukhipa/xVA1krv9">Tadukhipa</a> of Mitanni Daughter of <a href="/facts/%25C5%25A0atiya/BLoEvx7C">Šatiya</a>, ruler of <a href="/facts/Eni%25C5%25A1asi/j9Rg8Ttl">Enišasi</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Meritaten/No0dFlkP">Meritaten</a>? <a href="/facts/Meketaten/5XTaQgKy">Meketaten</a>? <a href="/facts/Ankhesenamun/KWQpA5fU">Ankhesenamun</a> Daughter of <a href="/facts/Burna-Buriash_II/QhHXG0ez">Burna-Buriash II</a>, King of Babylon<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Smenkhkare/JBxJQtFk">Smenkhkare</a></td><td></td><td>Ankhkheperure</td><td>(unknown)</td><td>1335–1334 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV55/QjvKwNRW">KV55</a> (?)</td><td><a href="/facts/Meritaten/No0dFlkP">Meritaten</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Neferneferuaten/l89aA4nQ">Neferneferuaten</a></td><td></td><td>Ankhkheperure-<i>Akhet-en-hyes</i></td><td>(unknown)</td><td>1334–1332 BC</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Akhenaten/huu7JVtN">Akhenaten</a>? <a href="/facts/Smenkhkare/JBxJQtFk">Smenkhkare</a>?</td><td>Usually identified as Queen <a href="/facts/Nefertiti/fgAWVJXY">Nefertiti</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Tutankhamun/lD17fY2r">Tutankhamun</a></td><td></td><td>Nebkheperure</td><td>Kanakhttutmesut</td><td>1332–1323 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV62/yrjwxEv3">KV62</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Ankhesenamun/KWQpA5fU">Ankhesenamun</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ay_(pharaoh)/H6vArT0p">Ay</a></td><td></td><td>Kheperkheperure</td><td>Kanakhttjehenkhau</td><td>1323–1319 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV23/Ft7odISo">KV23</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Ankhesenamun/KWQpA5fU">Ankhesenamun</a>? <a href="/facts/Tey/HGtfFugl">Tey</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Horemheb/aX6AaKnY">Horemheb</a></td><td></td><td>Djeserkheperure-Setepenre</td><td>Kanakhtsepedsekheru</td><td>1319–1292 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/KV57/1ovVcHXP">KV57</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Mutnedjmet/f2vBMblu">Mutnedjmet</a> <a href="/facts/Amenia_(wife_of_Horemheb)/2JTQ2XwQ">Amenia</a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="timeline-of-the-18th-dynasty">Timeline of the 18th Dynasty</h2> <h2 id="gallery-of-images">Gallery of images</h2> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Egyptian_chronology/gxQGj79v">Egyptian chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree/YhpjxVpR">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree</a></li></ul> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <ul><li>O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric (1998). <i>Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign</i>. University of Michigan Press.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Guy_de_la_B%25C3%25A9doy%25C3%25A8re/VKmYKoXJ">de la Bédoyère, Guy</a> (2023). <i>Pharaohs of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of Tutankhamun's Dynasty</i>. Pegasus Books. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781639363063.</li> <li>Kozloff, Arielle; Bryan, Betsy (1992). <i>Royal and Divine Statuary in Egypt's Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep III and his World</i>. Cleveland.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Am%25C3%25A9lie_Kuhrt/pTjSE57K">Kuhrt, Amélie</a> (1995). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh"><i>The Ancient Near East: c. 3000–330 BC</i></a>. London: <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">Routledge</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780415013536.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/82622/rec/1">Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh</a>, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Wilkinson, Toby (2010). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-60429-7. <a href="978-0-679-60429-7" target="_blank">978-0-679-60429-7</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Daniel Molinari (2014-09-16), Egypts Lost Queens, archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 2017-11-14 <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmFM-rPerL4" target="_blank">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmFM-rPerL4</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Graciela Gestoso Singer, "Ahmose-Nefertari, The Woman in Black". Terrae Antiqvae, January 17, 2011 <a href="https://www.academia.edu/414029/Ahmose_Nefertari_the_Woman_in_Black" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/414029/Ahmose_Nefertari_the_Woman_in_Black</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: pg 122 <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>O'Connor & Cline 1998, pp. 11–12. - O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric (1998). Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. University of Michigan Press. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: pg 130 <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Kozloff & Bryan 1992, no. 2. - Kozloff, Arielle; Bryan, Betsy (1992). Royal and Divine Statuary in Egypt's Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep III and his World. Cleveland. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2010). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-500-28857-3. <a href="978-0-500-28857-3" target="_blank">978-0-500-28857-3</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2010). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-500-28857-3. <a href="978-0-500-28857-3" target="_blank">978-0-500-28857-3</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Gardiner, Alan (1953). "The Coronation of King Haremhab". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 39: 13–31. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>"Block Statue of Ay". brooklynmuseum.org. Retrieved 17 June 2014. <a href="http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/3752/Block_Statue_of_Ay#" target="_blank">http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/3752/Block_Statue_of_Ay#</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>O'Connor, David (1993). Ancient Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa. University of Pennsylvania, USA: University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. pp. 60–69. ISBN 0924171286. <a href="0924171286" target="_blank">0924171286</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Shaw, Ian (2004). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 217. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>"Early History", Helen Chapin Metz, ed., Sudan A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. <a href="/wiki/Helen_Chapin_Metz" target="_blank">/wiki/Helen_Chapin_Metz</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>O'Connor, David (1993). Ancient Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa. University of Pennsylvania, USA: University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. pp. 60–69. ISBN 0924171286. <a href="0924171286" target="_blank">0924171286</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Gabriel, Richard A. (2009). Thutmose III: The Military Biography of Egypt's Greatest Warrior King. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 204. ISBN 978-1-59797-373-1. <a href="978-1-59797-373-1" target="_blank">978-1-59797-373-1</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Allen, James P. (2000). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-521-77483-3. <a href="978-0-521-77483-3" target="_blank">978-0-521-77483-3</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Ramsey, C. B.; Dee, M. W.; Rowland, J. M.; Higham, T. F. G.; Harris, S. A.; Brock, F.; Quiles, A.; Wild, E. M.; Marcus, E. S.; Shortland, A. J. (2010). "Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt". Science. 328 (5985): 1554–1557. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1554R. doi:10.1126/science.1189395. PMID 20558717. S2CID 206526496. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press, London 2004 <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>"Sites in the Valley of the Kings". Theban Mapping Project. 2010. Archived from the original on 25 July 2010. Retrieved 24 November 2018. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100725081817/http://www.thebanmappingproject.com/sites/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100725081817/http://www.thebanmappingproject.com/sites/</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005, ISBN 978-0954721893 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>