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Cham language
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <h3>Ancient Roots</h3> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Old_Cham/jYBpeXYR">Old Cham</a></p> <p>The Cham people are believed to be descendants of the Champa Kingdom, which was a powerful and influential kingdom that flourished in what is now central and southern Vietnam from around the 2nd to the 17th century. The Champa Kingdom had a distinctive culture and language that set the Cham people apart from their neighbors. </p> <h3>Champa Kingdom</h3> <p>The Champa Kingdom played a significant role in regional trade and cultural exchange, interacting with neighboring civilizations such as the <a href="/facts/Khmer_Empire/G2YlkSek">Khmer Empire</a>, the <a href="/facts/%25C4%2590%25E1%25BA%25A1i_Vi%25E1%25BB%2587t/ksz5RByd">Dai Viet</a> (<a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese</a>), and others. The Cham people developed their own script, known as <a href="/facts/Cham_script/v5p0gyxJ">Cham script</a>, which was used for inscriptions and religious texts. </p> <h3>Decline of Champa</h3> <p>The decline of the Champa Kingdom began in the 15th century, and by the 17th century, it had been absorbed by the expanding Vietnamese state. This period marked significant cultural and linguistic changes for the Cham people as they came under the influence of the dominant <a href="/facts/Culture_of_Vietnam/5DSsxkSf">Vietnamese culture</a>. </p> <h3>Cham Diaspora</h3> <p>As a result of historical events, including wars and the annexation of Champa by Vietnam, the Cham people faced displacement. Some migrated to Cambodia, where they established communities, while others remained in Vietnam. The Cham language underwent changes and adaptations as the Cham people interacted with the cultures of their new environments. </p> <h3>Modern Challenges</h3> <p>In the contemporary era, the Cham language faces challenges such as assimilation, linguistic shifts, and the influence of dominant languages in the regions where Cham communities reside. Efforts are being made to preserve and revitalize the Cham language, including cultural programs, educational initiatives, and documentation of the language. </p> <h2 id="phonology">Phonology</h2> <p>The Cham language dialects each have 21 consonants and 9 vowels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h3>Consonants</h3> Cham consonants<table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2"></th><th><a href="/facts/Labial_consonant/bv4MqTMf">Labial</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">Alveolar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Palatal_consonant/KLcKyXE8">Palatal</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Velar_consonant/blWClp79">Velar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Glottal_consonant/rMdEdLxH">Glottal</a></th></tr><tr><th rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/Plosive/okC9pztc">Plosive</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Tenuis_consonant/1px0NAKF">unaspirated</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive/w4M9Igp6">p</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive/1GaDe2Vy">t</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_palatal_plosive/nBqIqUIS">c</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_velar_plosive/dDppVb6e">k</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Glottal_stop/Xfqy2ArP">ʔ</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">aspirated</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">pʰ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">tʰ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">cʰ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">kʰ</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Implosive_consonant/Mx5sxUl9">implosive</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_implosive/WIkxarTP">ɓ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_implosive/QV7zLYGN">ɗ</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nasal_consonant/m6D3cVhe">Nasal</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_nasal/1pd7NK2x">m</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_nasal/0CEs8314">n</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_palatal_nasal/dLa9YG49">ɲ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_nasal/r6v5q92L">ŋ</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Liquid_consonant/NLaIlh7R">Liquid</a></th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant/dgbHhqeK">l</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Fricative/1FQuuhfX">Fricative</a></th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative/WLKtEYDe">s</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_velar_fricative/ESy9fy1G">ɣ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiceless_glottal_fricative/lfRB7CPW">h</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Rhotic_consonant/tcAGzjfP">Rhotic</a></th><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_trill/rDplJobc">r</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Approximant/SXrlw7zY">Approximant</a></th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_palatal_approximant/v0NVCbUh">j</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Voiced_labial%25E2%2580%2593velar_approximant/HLDqbrvr">w</a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Vowels</h3> <h4>Monophthongs</h4> Cham vowels<table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/Front_vowel/htKQs3AT">Front</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Central_vowel/IFSaKUe9">Central</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">Back</a></th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/High_vowel/Ne6tHQHR">High</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Close_front_unrounded_vowel/rSUdlCPU">i</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Close_central_unrounded_vowel/YdtMNGWw">ɨ</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Close_back_rounded_vowel/gqlQLfse">u</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Mid_high/rK07wQEd">Mid-high</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel/e9YNLF97">e</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Mid_central_vowel/CCx0wYy3">ə</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel/VwS9cKWJ">o</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Mid_low/qkco8QqT">Mid-low</a></th><td><a href="/facts/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel/aDRvwE46">ɛ</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel/yMNUClGt">ɔ</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Low_vowel/roS0Y7lA">Low</a></th><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Open_front_unrounded_vowel/s80pvmYh">a</a></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Diphthongs</h4> <p>/ia/, /iɯ/ (occurs only before /-ʔ/), /ea/, /ua/, /oa/, /au/ (occurs only before /-ʔ/), /iə/, /ɛə/, /ɔə/, /uə/. </p> <h2 id="grammar">Grammar</h2> <h3>Word formation</h3> <p>There are several prefixes and infixes which can be used for word derivation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>prefix <i>pa-</i>: <a href="/facts/Causative/HCEIFzmC">causative</a>, sometimes giving more force to the word <ul><li><i>thau</i> (to know) → <i>pathau</i> (to inform)</li> <li><i>blei</i> (to buy) → <i>pablei</i> (to sell)</li> <li><i>biér</i> (low) → <i>pabiér</i> (to lower)</li> <li><i>yao</i> (like, as) → <i>payao</i> (to compare)</li> <li><i>jâ</i> (finished) → <i>pajâ</i> (well finished)</li></ul></li> <li>prefix <i>mâ-</i>: sometimes causative, often indicates a state, possession, mutuality, reciprocity <ul><li><i>jru</i> (poison) → <i>mâjru</i> (to poison)</li> <li><i>gru</i> (teacher) → <i>mâgru</i> (to study)</li> <li><i>tian</i> (belly) → <i>mâtian</i> (pregnancy)</li> <li><i>boh</i> (egg, fruit) → <i>mâboh</i> (lay an egg, give fruit)</li> <li><i>daké</i> (horn) → <i>mâdaké</i> (having horns)</li></ul></li> <li>prefix <i>ta-</i> or <i>da-</i>: <a href="/facts/Frequentative/FDuWwjUb">frequentative</a> <ul><li><i>galung</i> (to roll) → <i>tagalung</i> (to roll around)</li> <li><i>dep</i> (to hide oneself) → <i>dadep</i> (to be wont to hide oneself)</li></ul></li> <li>infix <i>-an-</i>: noun formation <ul><li><i>puec</i> (to speak) → <i>panuec</i> (speech)</li> <li><i>tiw</i> (row) → <i>taniw</i> (oar)</li> <li><i>dok</i> (to live) → <i>danok</i> (house, living place)</li></ul></li> <li>infix <i>-mâ-</i>: no specific meaning <ul><li><i>payao</i> (to compare) → <i>pamâyao</i> (to compare)</li></ul></li></ul> <p><a href="/facts/Reduplication/m6CxqyE4">Reduplication</a> is often used:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><i>palei</i>, <i>pala-palei</i> (country)</li> <li><i>rambah</i>, <i>rambah-rambâp</i> (misery)</li></ul> <h3>Syntax and word order</h3> <p>Cham generally uses <a href="/facts/Subject%25E2%2580%2593verb%25E2%2580%2593object/N0DS8deK">SVO</a> word order, without any case marking to distinguish subject from object:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <p>Dahlak</p><p>I</p><p>atong</p><p>beat</p><p>nyu.</p><p>he</p><p>Dahlak atong nyu.</p><p>I beat he</p><p>"I beat him."</p> <p>Nyu</p><p>he</p><p>atong</p><p>beat</p><p>dahlak.</p><p>I</p><p>Nyu atong dahlak.</p><p>he beat I</p><p>"He beats me."</p> <p>Dummy pronominal subjects are sometimes used, echoing the subject: </p> <p>Inâ hudiap dahlak</p><p>my wife's mother</p><p>nyu</p><p>she</p><p>atong</p><p>beat</p><p>adei puthang nyu.</p><p>her husband's younger sister</p><p>{Inâ hudiap dahlak} nyu atong {adei puthang nyu.}</p><p>{my wife's mother} she beat {her husband's younger sister}</p><p>"My wife's mother beats her husband's younger sister."</p> <p>Composite verbs will behave as one inseparable verb, having the object come after it: </p> <p>Bloh</p><p>then</p><p>nyu</p><p>she</p><p>ndih di apvei</p><p>lie at fire (i.e.: give birth)</p><p>anek lakei.</p><p>son</p><p>Bloh nyu {ndih di apvei} {anek lakei.}</p><p>then she {lie at fire (i.e.: give birth)} son</p><p>"Then she gave birth to a son."</p> <p>Sometimes, however, the verb is placed in front of the subject: </p> <p>Lék</p><p>fall</p><p>dahlak.</p><p>I</p><p>Lék dahlak.</p><p>fall I</p><p>"I fall."</p> <p><a href="/facts/Auxiliary_verb/euozcMq3">Auxiliary verbs</a> are placed after any objects: </p> <p>Nyu</p><p>he</p><p>ba</p><p>bring</p><p>hudiap nyu</p><p>his wife</p><p>nao.</p><p>go</p><p>Nyu ba {hudiap nyu} nao.</p><p>he bring {his wife} go</p><p>"He brings his wife."</p> <p>If a sentence contains more than one main verb, one of the two will have an adverbial meaning: </p> <p>Nyu</p><p>he</p><p>dep</p><p>hide</p><p>klaḥ</p><p>evade</p><p>mâtai.</p><p>death</p><p>Nyu dep klaḥ mâtai.</p><p>he hide evade death</p><p>"He evaded death by hiding."</p> <p>Adjectives come after the nouns they modify:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <p>thang</p><p>house</p><p>praong</p><p>big</p><p>thang praong</p><p>house big</p><p>"a big house"</p> <p>If the order is reversed, the whole will behave like a compound: </p> <p>urang</p><p>person</p><p>praong</p><p>big</p><p>sap</p><p>noise</p><p>urang praong sap</p><p>person big noise</p><p>"a noisy person"</p> <p>Composite sentences can be formed with the particle <i>krung</i>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <p>tha drei athau tha drei mâyau</p><p>the dog and the cat</p><p>krung</p><p>which</p><p>ai nyu brei ka nyu</p><p>his brother gave him</p><p>{tha drei athau tha drei mâyau} krung {ai nyu brei ka nyu}</p><p>{the dog and the cat} which {his brother gave him}</p><p>"the dog and the cat his brother gave him"</p> <p>nao tapak</p><p>to go straight</p><p>danao</p><p>lake</p><p>krung</p><p>which</p><p>ai that ikan</p><p>brother is fishing</p><p>{nao tapak} danao krung {ai that ikan}</p><p>{to go straight} lake which {brother is fishing}</p><p>"to go straight to the lake where his brother was fishing"</p> <p>It is also possible to leave out this particle, without change in meaning:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <p>Dahlak brei athéh nan</p><p>I give this horse</p><p>ka wa dahlak</p><p>to my uncle</p><p>∅</p><p>who</p><p>dok dii palei Ram.</p><p>live in the village of Ram</p><p>{Dahlak brei athéh nan} {ka wa dahlak} ∅ {dok dii palei Ram.}</p><p>{I give this horse} {to my uncle} who {live in the village of Ram}</p><p>"I have given this horse to my uncle, who lives in the village of Ram."</p> <p>Questions are formed with the sentence-final particle <i>rẽi</i>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p> <p>Anek</p><p>child</p><p>thau</p><p>know</p><p>wakhar</p><p>writing</p><p>rei?</p><p>Q</p><p>Anek thau wakhar rei?</p><p>child know writing Q</p><p>"Can you write, child?"</p> <p>Other question words are <a href="/facts/In_situ/YolKlaCC">in situ</a>: </p> <p>Hau</p><p>you</p><p>nao</p><p>go</p><p>hatao?</p><p>where</p><p>Hau nao hatao?</p><p>you go where</p><p>"Where are you going?"</p> <h3>Nominals</h3> <p>Like many languages in Eastern Asia, Cham uses <a href="/facts/Classifier_(linguistics)/nWVQKzbz">numeral classifiers</a> to express amounts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> The classifier will always come after the numeral, with the noun coming invariably before or after the classifier-numeral pair. </p> <p>limâ</p><p>five</p><p>boḥ</p><p>CLF</p><p>châk</p><p>mountain</p><p>limâ boḥ châk</p><p>five CLF mountain</p><p>"five mountains"</p> <p>palei</p><p>village</p><p>naṃ</p><p>six</p><p>boḥ</p><p>CLF</p><p>palei naṃ boḥ</p><p>village six CLF</p><p>"six villages"</p> <p>The above examples show the classifier <i>boḥ</i>, which literally means "egg" and is the most frequently used — particularly for round and voluminous objects. Other classifiers are <i>ôrang</i> (person) for people and deities, <i>ḅêk</i> for long objects, <i>blaḥ</i> (leaf) for flat objects, and many others. </p><p>The days of the month are counted with a similar system, with two classifiers: one (<i>bangun</i>) used to count days before the full moon, and the other one (<i>ranaṃ</i>) for days after the full moon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <p>harei</p><p>day</p><p>tha</p><p>one</p><p>bangun</p><p>CLF</p><p>harei tha bangun</p><p>day one CLF</p><p>"first day after new moon"</p> <p>harei</p><p>day</p><p>dua</p><p>two</p><p>klaṃ</p><p>CLF</p><p>harei dua klaṃ</p><p>day two CLF</p><p>"second day after full moon"</p> <p>Personal pronouns behave like ordinary nouns and do not show any case distinctions. There are different forms depending on the <a href="/facts/Register_(sociolinguistics)/q1eujwX8">level of politeness</a>. The first person singular, for example, is <i>kău</i> in formal or distant context, while it is <i>dahlak</i> (in Vietnam) or <i>hulun</i> (in Cambodia) in an ordinarily polite context. As is the case with many other languages of the region, kinship terms are often used as personal pronouns.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Comparison_(grammar)/he1zw790">Comparative</a> and <a href="/facts/Superlative/he1zw790">superlative</a> are expressed with the locative preposition <i>di</i>/<i>dii</i>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <p>tapa</p><p>big</p><p>di</p><p>at</p><p>ai nyu</p><p>his brother</p><p>tapa di {ai nyu}</p><p>big at {his brother}</p><p>"bigger than his brother"</p> <h3>Verbs</h3> <p>There are some particles that can be used to indicate <a href="/facts/Grammatical_tense/reLNLa97">tense</a>/<a href="/facts/Grammatical_aspect/zX9gFXn9">aspect</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The future is indicated with <i>si</i> or <i>thi</i> in Vietnam, with <i>hi</i> or <i>si</i> in Cambodia. The perfect is expressed with<i> jâ</i>. The first one comes in front of the verb: </p> <p>Arak ni</p><p>now</p><p>kau</p><p>I</p><p>si</p><p>FUT</p><p>nao.</p><p>go</p><p>{Arak ni} kau si nao.</p><p>now I FUT go</p><p>"I will go now."</p> <p>The second one is sentence-final: </p> <p>Sit tra</p><p>little more</p><p>kau</p><p>I</p><p>nao</p><p>go</p><p>jâ.</p><p>PRF</p><p>{Sit tra} kau nao jâ.</p><p>{little more} I go PRF</p><p>"I'll be gone in a moment."</p> <p>Certain verbs can function as auxiliaries to express other tenses or aspects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> The verb <i>dok</i> ("to stay") is used for the continuous, <i>wâk</i> ("to return") for the repetitive aspect, and <i>kieng</i> ("to want") for the future tense. </p><p>The negation is formed with <i>oh</i>/<i>o</i> at either or both sides of the verb, or with <i>di</i>/<i>dii</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> in front.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>The imperative is formed with the sentence-final particle <i>bék</i>, and the negative imperative with the preverbal <i>juai</i>/<i>juei</i> (in Vietnam and Cambodia respectively).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</h2> <h3>Diglossia</h3> <p>Brunelle observed two phenomena of language use among speakers of Eastern Cham: They are both <a href="/facts/Diglossia/Njzhqnrz">diglossic</a> and <a href="/facts/Multilingualism/WgzhSW6h">bilingual</a> (in Cham and Vietnamese). Diglossia is the situation where two varieties of a language are used in a single language community, and oftentimes one is used on formal occasions (labelled H) and the other is more colloquial (labelled L).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h3>Dialectal differences</h3> <p>Cham is divided into two primary dialects. </p> <ul><li>Western Cham: It is spoken by the Chams in Cambodia as well as in the adjacent Vietnamese provinces of <a href="/facts/An_Giang_Province/NBo9eYmX">An Giang</a> and <a href="/facts/T%25C3%25A2y_Ninh_Province/f5jdVBuR">Tây Ninh</a>.</li> <li>Eastern Cham: It is spoken by the coastal Cham population in the Vietnamese provinces of <a href="/facts/B%25C3%25ACnh_Thu%25E1%25BA%25ADn_Province/NeeP8jsu">Bình Thuận</a>, <a href="/facts/Ninh_Thu%25E1%25BA%25ADn_Province/XV4lLAzP">Ninh Thuận</a>, and <a href="/facts/%25C4%2590%25E1%25BB%2593ng_Nai_Province/WELAQB6W">Đồng Nai</a>.</li></ul> <p>The two regions where Cham is spoken are separated both geographically and culturally. The more numerous Western Cham are predominantly <a href="/facts/Muslims/W2ukq4pg">Muslims</a> (although some in Cambodia now practice <a href="/facts/Theravada/nMhXBXBo">Theravāda Buddhism</a>), while the Eastern Cham practice both <a href="/facts/Hinduism/oxV9YvQh">Hinduism</a> and <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a>. Ethnologue states that the Eastern and Western dialects are no longer mutually intelligible. The table below gives some examples of words where the two dialects differed as of the 19th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th>Cambodia</th><th>southern Vietnam</th></tr><tr><th colspan="3">vowels</th></tr><tr><td>child</td><td><i>anœk</i></td><td><i>anẽk</i></td></tr><tr><td>take</td><td><i>tuk</i></td><td><i>tôk</i></td></tr><tr><td>not</td><td><i>jvẽi</i></td><td><i>jvai</i></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3">sibilants</th></tr><tr><td>one</td><td><i>sa</i></td><td><i>tha</i></td></tr><tr><td>save from drowning</td><td><i>srong</i></td><td><i>throng</i></td></tr><tr><td>salt</td><td><i>sara</i></td><td><i>shara</i></td></tr><tr><td>equal</td><td><i>samu</i></td><td><i>hamu</i></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3">final consonants</th></tr><tr><td>heavy</td><td><i>trap</i></td><td><i>trak</i></td></tr><tr><td>in front</td><td><i>anap</i></td><td><i>anak</i></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3">lexical differences</th></tr><tr><td>market</td><td><i>pasa</i></td><td><i>darak</i></td></tr><tr><td>hate</td><td><i>amoḥ</i></td><td><i>limuk</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Lê et al. (2014:175)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> lists a few Cham subgroups. </p> <ul><li>Chăm Poông: in Thạnh Hiếu village, Phan Hiệp commune, <a href="/facts/B%25E1%25BA%25AFc_B%25C3%25ACnh_District/bFTIIHV7">Bắc Bình District</a>, <a href="/facts/B%25C3%25ACnh_Thu%25E1%25BA%25ADn_Province/NeeP8jsu">Bình Thuận Province</a>. The Chăm Poông practice burial instead of cremation as the surrounding Cham do.</li> <li>Chăm Hroi (population 4,000): in Phước Vân District (<a href="/facts/B%25C3%25ACnh_%25C4%2590%25E1%25BB%258Bnh_Province/AT4eM8IE">Bình Định Province</a>), <a href="/facts/%25C4%2590%25E1%25BB%2593ng_Xu%25C3%25A2n_District/UBlPhJty">Đồng Xuân District</a> (<a href="/facts/Ph%25C3%25BA_Y%25C3%25AAn_Province/Y6kQrzo1">Phú Yên Province</a>), and <a href="/facts/T%25C3%25A2y_S%25C6%25A1n_District/nzeAvQV4">Tây Sơn District</a> (<a href="/facts/B%25C3%25ACnh_%25C4%2590%25E1%25BB%258Bnh_Province/AT4eM8IE">Bình Định Province</a>)</li> <li>Chàvà Ku, a mixed Malay-Khmer people in <a href="/facts/Ch%25C3%25A2u_%25C4%2590%25E1%25BB%2591c/qTbKnMaa">Châu Đốc</a></li></ul> <h2 id="writing-systems">Writing systems</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Cham_script/v5p0gyxJ">Cham script</a> is a <a href="/facts/Brahmic_scripts/mwHJWt6d">Brahmic script</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> The script has two varieties: <i>Akhar Thrah</i> (Eastern Cham) and <i>Akhar Srak</i> (Western Cham). The Western Cham language is written with the <a href="/facts/Arabic_script/GB5gsj1F">Arabic script</a> or the aforementioned Akhar Srak.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h3>Example text</h3> <p>ꨕꨨꨵꩀ ꨧꨮ ꨍꨯꩆ ꨇꩈ ꨟꨮꨭ ꨕꨮꩃ ꨆꩇ ꨨꩆ ꨨꩈ ꨕꩃ ꨕꨭ ꨟꨁꨁ ꨍꨭꨢꨮꩆ ꨚꩈ ꨔꩃ ꨣꩇ ꨆꨨꨁꨃꨂ ꨝꩆ ꨔꩆ ꨇꨯꩂ ꨍꨮꨭ ꨓꨮ ꨨꩃ ꨍꨮꨭ ꨆꨯ ꨟꨶꩆ ꨕꩈ ꨌꩌ </p> <h2 id="dictionaries">Dictionaries</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/Ming_dynasty/p3bSVwUH">Ming dynasty</a> Chinese <a href="/facts/Hanlin_Academy/tNPoAKYf">Bureau of Translators</a> produced a Chinese-Cham dictionary. </p><p><a href="/facts/John_Crawfurd/Hs9uorSl">John Crawfurd</a>'s 1822 work "Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China" contains a wordlist of the Cham language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a>: 40 </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Old_Cham/jYBpeXYR">Old Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cham_script/v5p0gyxJ">Cham script</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cham_people_(Asia)/eocRAqmK">Cham people</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cham_calendar/rSLKEsfV">Cham calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Champa/HLWa7c9y">Champa kingdom</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <i>Eastern Cham language test</i> of <a href="/facts/Wikipedia/KDRNKWnc">Wikipedia</a> at Wikimedia Incubator <i>Western Cham language test</i> of <a href="/facts/Wikipedia/KDRNKWnc">Wikipedia</a> at Wikimedia Incubator <ul><li>Grant, Anthony (Ed.); Sidwell, Paul (Ed.) (2005). Grant, Anthony; Sidwell, Paul (eds.). <a href="https://doi.org/10.15144%2FPL-569">"Chamic and Beyond: Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages"</a>. <i>Pl-569</i>. Pacific Linguistics. 569. Canberra: Australian National University. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.15144%2FPL-569">10.15144/PL-569</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F146271">1885/146271</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-85883-561-4.</li> <li>Thurgood, Graham (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MBGYb84A7SAC"><i>From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Rreconstructions and Loanwords</i></a>. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication No. 28. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-8248-2131-9.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Etienne_Aymonier/RNzAsPs0">Aymonier, Étienne</a>; <a href="/facts/Antoine_Cabaton/AdoBcwje">Cabaton, Antoine</a> (1906). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SSAoAAAAYAAJ"><i>Dictionnaire čam-français</i></a>. Volume 7 of Publications de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. Paris: E. Leroux.</li> <li>Aymonier, Etienne (1889). <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog"><i>Grammaire de la langue chame</i></a>. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale.</li> <li>Blood, D. L., & Blood, D. (1977). <i>East Cham language</i>. Vietnam data microfiche series, no. VD 51-72. Huntington Beach, Calif: Summer Institute of Linguistics.</li> <li>Blood, D. L. (1977). <i>A romanization of the Cham language in relation to the Cham script</i>. Vietnam data microfiche series, no. VD51-17. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.</li> <li>Edwards, E. D.; Blagden, C. O. (1939). "A Chinese Vocabulary of Cham Words and Phrases". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London</i>. 10 (1): 53–91. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/607926">607926</a>.</li> <li>Braginsky, Vladimir (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dxwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA398"><i>Classical Civilizations of South-East Asia</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 398–. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-136-84879-7.</li> <li>Moussay, Gerard (1971). <i>Dictionnaire Cam-Vietnamien-Français</i> (in French). Phan Rang: Centre Culturel Cam. (available online at <a href="https://nguoicham.com/cdict/">nguoicham.com</a>)</li> <li>Sakaya (2014). <i>Từ điển Chăm</i> (in Vietnamese). Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản Tri Thức. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-604-908-999-2.</li> <li>Various (2011). <i>Ngôn ngữ Chăm: thực trạng và giải pháp</i> (in Vietnamese). Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản Phụ Nữ.</li> <li>Abdul Majid Hj. Yunos (2010). <a href="https://archive.org/details/20240317_20240317_1210/page/n1/mode/2up"><i>Kamus Cam–Melayu Jawi Rumi</i></a> (in Malay).</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Kaipuleohone/DNxjBHEm">Kaipuleohone</a> has an archive including written materials of Cham</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Cham". The Unicode Standard, Version 11.0. Mountain View, CA: Unicode Consortium. p. 661. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Western Cham at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023) Eastern Cham at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023) <a href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cja" target="_blank">https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cja</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Ueki, Kaori (2011). Prosody and Intonation of Western Cham (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis). University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. <a href="http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/graduate/Dissertations/KaoriUekiFinal.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/graduate/Dissertations/KaoriUekiFinal.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>/r/ in Western Cham is heard as a velar fricative [ɣ]. In Eastern Cham, it is heard as an alveolar flap [ɾ], glide [ɹ], or trill [r].[4] <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" target="_blank">/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. X - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. X - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XXI - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XIII - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XII - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XXI - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XIX - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XI - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. VIII - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XII - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XVI - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XV - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XIV - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>This happens to be homophonous with the locative preposition. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XV - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. XV - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Brunelle, Marc (2008). "Diglossia, Bilingualism, and the Revitalization of Written Eastern Cham". Language Documentation & Conservation. 2 (1): 28–46. hdl:10125/1848. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Brunelle, Marc (2009). "Diglossia and Monosyllabization in Eastern Cham: A Sociolinguistic Study". In Stanford, J. N.; Preston, D. R. (eds.). Variation in Indigenous Minority Languages. John Benjamins. pp. 47–75. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Aymonier 1889, chapt. IX - Aymonier, Etienne (1889). Grammaire de la langue chame. Saigon: Imprimerie coloniale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/grammairedelala00aymogoog</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Lê Bá Thảo, Hoàng Ma, et. al; Viện hàn lâm khoa học xã hội Việt Nam - Viện dân tộc học. 2014. Các dân tộc ít người ở Việt Nam: các tỉnh phía nam. Ha Noi: Nhà xuất bản khoa học xã hội. ISBN 978-604-90-2436-8 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>"Cham". The Unicode Standard, Version 11.0. Mountain View, CA: Unicode Consortium. p. 661. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Hosken, Martin (2019), L2/19-217 Proposal to Encode Western Cham in the UCS (PDF) <a href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19217-western-cham.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19217-western-cham.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Bruckmayr, Philipp (2019). "The Changing Fates of the Cambodian Islamic Manuscript Tradition". Journal of Islamic Manuscripts. 10 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1163/1878464X-01001001. S2CID 167038700. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="0824821319" target="_blank">0824821319</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>