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Human interactions with microbes
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<h2 id="context">Context</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Microorganism/pysJYcE2">Microorganism</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Culture/c5JgMqpX">Culture</a> consists of the <a href="/facts/Social_behaviour/RJtLfpfE">social behaviour</a> and <a href="/facts/Norm_(social)/Qu2jGBz3">norms</a> found in <a href="/facts/Human/rlcTENsr">human</a> <a href="/facts/Society/PulvrYfa">societies</a> and transmitted through <a href="/facts/Social_learning_theory/IcbScxFv">social learning</a>. <a href="/facts/Cultural_universals/rFk3vcVl">Cultural universals</a> in all human societies include expressive forms like <a href="/facts/Art/ILbnQHHb">art</a>, <a href="/facts/Music/hDVP0xsQ">music</a>, <a href="/facts/Dance/s9SeYNR9">dance</a>, <a href="/facts/Ritual/EIJngpmf">ritual</a>, <a href="/facts/Religion/cxntrD0R">religion</a>, and <a href="/facts/Technology/9Uav5WVR">technologies</a> like <a href="/facts/Tool/KhhEHz1I">tool usage</a>, <a href="/facts/Cooking/YWVfGWD1">cooking</a>, <a href="/facts/Shelter_(building)/t4VFFX1V">shelter</a>, and <a href="/facts/Clothing/5J5RhkYY">clothing</a>. The concept of <a href="/facts/Material_culture/nbka4wGL">material culture</a> covers physical expressions such as technology, architecture and art, whereas immaterial culture includes principles of <a href="/facts/Social_organization/EDpvow0U">social organization</a>, <a href="/facts/Mythology/kG8UTfem">mythology</a>, <a href="/facts/Philosophy/zAH5PVD6">philosophy</a>, <a href="/facts/Literature/CmUDxokU">literature</a>, and <a href="/facts/Science/IJoaD7rs">science</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> This article describes the roles played by microorganisms in human culture. </p><p>Since microbes were not known until the <a href="/facts/Early_Modern/hhpHM721">Early Modern</a> period, they appear in earlier literature indirectly, through descriptions of <a href="/facts/Baking/SU8Cb6Wa">baking</a> and <a href="/facts/Brewing/aKCgJVyJ">brewing</a>. Only with the invention of the <a href="/facts/Microscope/ldJp0CI3">microscope</a>, as used by <a href="/facts/Robert_Hooke/T5sEElp5">Robert Hooke</a> in his 1665 book <i><a href="/facts/Micrographia/9A5bu0hb">Micrographia</a></i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> and by <a href="/facts/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek/HQ9dH9oo">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> in the 1670s,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> the <a href="/facts/Germ_theory_of_disease/VReJjyw7">germ theory of disease</a>, and progress in <a href="/facts/Microbiology/k7udsq81">microbiology</a> in the 19th century were microbes observed directly, identified as living organisms, and put to use on a scientific basis. The same knowledge also allowed microbes to appear explicitly in literature and the arts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="practical-uses">Practical uses</h2> <h3>Food production</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Fermentation_in_food_processing/pWDlWfkd">Fermentation in food processing</a></p> <p>Controlled <a href="/facts/Fermentation_(food)/pWDlWfkd">fermentation</a> with microbes in <a href="/facts/Brewing/aKCgJVyJ">brewing</a>, <a href="/facts/Wine_making/ITBb0gpf">wine making</a>, <a href="/facts/Baking/SU8Cb6Wa">baking</a>, <a href="/facts/Pickling/lKvv4uJA">pickling</a> and cultured <a href="/facts/Dairy_product/rGVJUHVb">dairy products</a> such as <a href="/facts/Yogurt/JoQjepa7">yogurt</a> and <a href="/facts/Cheese/JrG8nGCm">cheese</a>, is used to modify ingredients to make <a href="/facts/Foods/RgNq6NAK">foods</a> with desirable properties. The <a href="/facts/List_of_microorganisms_used_in_food_and_beverage_preparation/zeTe0pwz">principal microbes involved</a> are <a href="/facts/Yeast/eGD24nfI">yeasts</a>, in the case of beer, wine, and ordinary <a href="/facts/Bread/Sr4Ucgfq">bread</a>; and <a href="/facts/Bacteria/wC8xSCsU">bacteria</a>, in the case of <a href="/facts/Anaerobic_respiration/IMSY03HG">anaerobically</a> fermented <a href="/facts/Vegetable/j3AlDG64">vegetables</a>, <a href="/facts/Dairy_product/rGVJUHVb">dairy products</a>, and <a href="/facts/Sourdough/KlRTkcjX">sourdough</a> bread. The cultures variously provide flavour and aroma, inhibit pathogens, increase digestibility and palatability, make bread rise, reduce cooking time, and create useful products including <a href="/facts/Ethanol/3lCLfBSP">alcohol</a>, <a href="/facts/Organic_acid/2Pfb26Lp">organic acids</a>, <a href="/facts/Vitamin/SnW0LYBL">vitamins</a>, <a href="/facts/Amino_acid/WDxYwBny">amino acids</a>, and <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">carbon dioxide</a>. Safety is maintained with the help of <a href="/facts/Food_microbiology/LwkNbBWg">food microbiology</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h3>Water treatment</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Sewage_treatment/bqLgnLnJ">Sewage treatment</a></p> <p>Oxidative sewage treatment processes rely on microorganisms to oxidise organic constituents. Anaerobic microorganisms reduce sludge solids producing <a href="/facts/Methane/kBHneYnh">methane</a> gas and a sterile mineralised residue. In <a href="/facts/Potable_water/FmSJcKGG">potable water</a> treatment, one method, the <a href="/facts/Slow_sand_filter/TlP68HlG">slow sand filter</a>, employs a complex gelatinous layer composed of a wide range of microorganisms to remove both dissolved and particulate material from raw water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h3>Energy</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Algae_fuel/A0SBG0RL">Algae fuel</a>, <a href="/facts/Cellulosic_ethanol/NyHYapwq">Cellulosic ethanol</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ethanol_fermentation/lpY5qenQ">Ethanol fermentation</a></p> <p>Microorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> and in <a href="/facts/Biogas/smSbYCKl">biogas</a> reactors to produce methane.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Scientists are researching the use of <a href="/facts/Algae_fuel/A0SBG0RL">algae to produce liquid fuels</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into <a href="/facts/Cellulosic_ethanol/NyHYapwq">usable fuels</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h3>Chemicals, enzymes</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Industrial_enzymes/QdYyE4vL">Industrial enzymes</a></p> <p>Microorganisms are used for many commercial and industrial purposes, including the production of chemicals, <a href="/facts/Enzymes/DSI1Fh7y">enzymes</a> and other bioactive molecules, often through <a href="/facts/Protein_engineering/veRAR1SF">protein engineering</a>. For example, <a href="/facts/Acetic_acid/uyBKA2Pd">acetic acid</a> is produced by the bacterium <i><a href="/facts/Acetobacter_aceti/MIBbAENV">Acetobacter aceti</a></i>, while <a href="/facts/Citric_acid/EgKGQBdl">citric acid</a> is produced by the fungus <i><a href="/facts/Aspergillus_niger/roMkRoaD">Aspergillus niger</a></i>. Microorganisms are used to prepare a widening range of bioactive molecules and enzymes. For example, <a href="/facts/Streptokinase/mAxd0GSK">Streptokinase</a> produced by the bacterium <i><a href="/facts/Streptococcus/Fx8lJ0nz">Streptococcus</a></i> and modified by <a href="/facts/Genetic_engineering/vwdlDR61">genetic engineering</a> is used <a href="/facts/Clot_buster/6hUSmL3G">to remove clots</a> from the blood vessels of patients who have suffered a <a href="/facts/Myocardial_infarctions/xoGw0qcG">heart attack</a>. <a href="/facts/Cyclosporin_A/tcIToHvK">Cyclosporin A</a> is an <a href="/facts/Immunosuppressive_agent/ctlB3Hda">immunosuppressive agent</a> in <a href="/facts/Organ_transplantation/1jNvVJn6">organ transplantation</a>, while <a href="/facts/Statins/ba4mes9W">statins</a> produced by the yeast <i><a href="/facts/Monascus_purpureus/ketaguXj">Monascus purpureus</a></i> serve as <a href="/facts/Blood_cholesterol/wugu59II">blood cholesterol</a> lowering agents, <a href="/facts/Competitive_inhibition/AQ3PLzBe">competitively inhibiting</a> the enzyme that synthesizes cholesterol.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h3>Science</h3> <p>Microorganisms are essential tools in <a href="/facts/Biotechnology/8eFnI6FB">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/facts/Biochemistry/fa2pWEBp">biochemistry</a>, <a href="/facts/Genetics/bu8wne0A">genetics</a>, and <a href="/facts/Molecular_biology/YgqU35ub">molecular biology</a>. The yeasts brewer's yeast (<i><a href="/facts/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae/sX9MGFrz">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>) and fission yeast (<i><a href="/facts/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe/GztzsPnJ">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a></i>) are important <a href="/facts/Model_organism/vNv6q4yb">model organisms</a> in science, since they are simple <a href="/facts/Eukaryote/SkwyPLMA">eukaryotes</a> that can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are easily manipulated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> They are particularly valuable in genetics, <a href="/facts/Genomics/pVU3BGpL">genomics</a> and <a href="/facts/Proteomics/3aqQ1tFh">proteomics</a>, for example in <a href="/facts/Protein_production/6cWhWJWc">protein production</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> The easily cultured gut bacterium <i><a href="/facts/Escherichia_coli/nR4Gvl56">Escherichia coli</a></i>, a <a href="/facts/Prokaryote/oYyvaDDH">prokaryote</a>, is similarly widely used as a model organism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <h3>Endosymbiosis</h3> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Human_microbiota/KerK9YGP">Human microbiota</a></p> <p>Microbes can form an <a href="/facts/Endosymbiont/eWvSS8ID">endosymbiotic</a> relationship with larger organisms. For example, the bacteria that live within the human digestive system <a href="/facts/Human_flora/xJIRMUAY">contribute to human health</a> through gut immunity, the synthesis of <a href="/facts/Vitamin/SnW0LYBL">vitamins</a> such as <a href="/facts/Folic_acid/8Eb7An6D">folic acid</a> and <a href="/facts/Biotin/WAaVxyB7">biotin</a>, and the fermentation of complex indigestible <a href="/facts/Carbohydrate/Geuuzxsf">carbohydrates</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Future drugs and food chemicals may need to be tested on the <a href="/facts/Gut_microbiota/Xy1IWzSP">gut microbiota</a>; it is already clear that <a href="/facts/Probiotic/gQNAN6ly">probiotic</a> supplements can promote health, and that gut microbes are affected by both diet and medicines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <h3>Warfare</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Biological_warfare/hLnbu8Sd">Biological warfare</a></p> <p>Pathogenic microbes, and <a href="/facts/Toxin/11oUNk7n">toxins</a> that they produce, have been developed as possible agents of warfare.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Crude forms of biological warfare have been practiced since antiquity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> In the 6th century BC, the <a href="/facts/Assyrian_people/qfHqDhDc">Assyrians</a> poisoned enemy wells with a <a href="/facts/Fungus/BHo5DP59">fungus</a> said to render the enemy delirious. In 1346, the bodies of <a href="/facts/Mongol_Empire/cfddtfIK">Mongol</a> warriors of the <a href="/facts/Golden_Horde/Cnee5NcY">Golden Horde</a> who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the <a href="/facts/Siege_of_Caffa/4oNnzfaV">besieged Crimean city of Kaffa</a>, possibly assisting the spread of the <a href="/facts/Black_Death/fztxlxgl">Black Death</a> into Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> Advances in <a href="/facts/Bacteriology/51CGDSh6">bacteriology</a> in the 20th century increased the sophistication of possible <a href="/facts/Bio-agent/4YnbS6Em">bio-agents</a> in war. Biological sabotage—in the form of <a href="/facts/Anthrax/svk0t5G4">anthrax</a> and <a href="/facts/Glanders/pq1yVTJu">glanders</a>—was undertaken on behalf of the <a href="/facts/German_Empire/lwQutJyN">Imperial German</a> government during <a href="/facts/World_War_I/vITTUanQ">World War I</a>, with indifferent results.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> In <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a>, Britain weaponised <a href="/facts/Tularemia/YGQKDcrW">tularemia</a>, <a href="/facts/Anthrax_disease/svk0t5G4">anthrax</a>, <a href="/facts/Brucellosis/Cq445r85">brucellosis</a>, and <a href="/facts/Botulism/7Jpsrcqv">botulism</a> toxins, but never used them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> The USA similarly explored biological warfare agents,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> developing anthrax spores, <a href="/facts/Brucellosis/Cq445r85">brucellosis</a>, and botulism toxins for possible military use.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Japan developed biological warfare agents, with the use of <a href="/facts/Human_experimentation/w57417CS">experiments on human prisoners</a>, and was about to use them when the war ended.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="symbolic-uses">Symbolic uses</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Disease_in_fiction/CB3HgWwo">Disease in fiction</a> and <a href="/facts/Parasites_in_fiction/tPK3KyDY">Parasites in fiction</a></p> <p>Being very small, and unknown until the invention of the <a href="/facts/Microscope/ldJp0CI3">microscope</a>, microbes do not feature directly in art or literature before <a href="/facts/Early_Modern/hhpHM721">Early Modern</a> times (though they appear indirectly in works about brewing and baking), when <a href="/facts/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek/HQ9dH9oo">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> observed microbes in water in 1676; his results were soon confirmed by <a href="/facts/Robert_Hooke/T5sEElp5">Robert Hooke</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> A few major diseases such as <a href="/facts/Tuberculosis/ggPyovAl">tuberculosis</a> appear <a href="/facts/Tuberculosis_in_popular_culture/h2QDSEHC">in literature, art, film, opera and music</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p> <h3>In literature</h3> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Cultural_depictions_of_tuberculosis/h2QDSEHC">Cultural depictions of tuberculosis</a></p> <p>The literary possibilities of <a href="/facts/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction/6a9bYkqe">post-apocalyptic stories</a> about <a href="/facts/Pandemic/KaJe9rTu">pandemics</a> (worldwide outbreaks of disease) have been explored in novels and films from <a href="/facts/Mary_Shelley/Pen5dCkU">Mary Shelley</a>'s 1826 <i><a href="/facts/The_Last_Man_(Mary_Shelley_novel)/KBggww0z">The Last Man</a></i> and <a href="/facts/Jack_London/cBr75uTI">Jack London</a>'s 1912 <i><a href="/facts/The_Scarlet_Plague/EbHxnV38">The Scarlet Plague</a></i> onwards. Medieval writings that deal with plague include <a href="/facts/Giovanni_Boccaccio/w9fQeppG">Giovanni Boccaccio</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/The_Decameron/VRjwG0l8">The Decameron</a></i> and <a href="/facts/Geoffrey_Chaucer/HR7rHQng">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/The_Canterbury_Tales/FrrCdDy0">The Canterbury Tales</a></i>: both treat the people's fear of contagion and the resulting moral decline, as well as bodily death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p><p>The making of beer has been celebrated in verse since the time of Ancient <a href="/facts/Sumeria/bxRz093q">Sumeria</a>, c. 1800 BC, when the "Hymn to <a href="/facts/Ninkasi/4S7vBdlm">Ninkasi</a>" was inscribed on a clay tablet. Ninkasi, <a href="/facts/Tutelary_goddess/0lSpfdoP">tutelary goddess</a> of beer, and daughter of the creator Enki and the "queen of the <a href="/facts/Sacred_lake/YYbdWgT6">sacred lake</a>" Ninki, "handles the <a href="/facts/Dough/Ckx1tzXo">dough</a> and with a big shovel, mixing in a pit, the bappir with [date] honey, ... waters the <a href="/facts/Malt/Tupt6cGw">malt</a> set on the ground, ... soaks the malt in a jar, ... spreads the cooked <a href="/facts/Mash_(beer)/fnG5lRuW">mash</a> on large reed mats, coolness overcomes, ... holds with both hands the great sweet <a href="/facts/Wort/HYL2hNjh">wort</a>, <a href="/facts/Brewing/aKCgJVyJ">brewing</a> it with honey".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p><p>Wine is a frequent topic in <a href="/facts/English_literature/7YWg6vJf">English literature</a>, from the spiced French and Italian "<a href="/facts/Hippocras/q8CcX9Sq">ypocras</a>", "<a href="/facts/Claret/m3rJsyVA">claree</a>", and "<a href="/facts/Vernaccia/fbu3DGDL">vernage</a>" in Chaucer's <i><a href="/facts/The_Merchant%2527s_Tale/dtawQ6fs">The Merchant's Tale</a></i> onwards. <a href="/facts/William_Shakespeare/ohI96JTv">William Shakespeare</a>'s <a href="/facts/Falstaff/hY8L8L7K">Falstaff</a> drank Spanish "<a href="/facts/Sherry/JeetxBYY">sherris sack</a>", in contrast to <a href="/facts/Sir_Toby_Belch/V6kG7N9A">Sir Toby Belch</a>'s preference for "<a href="/facts/Sack_(wine)/FGhy6jeQ">canary</a>". Wine references in later centuries branch out to more winegrowing regions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p><p><i>The Microbe</i> is a humorous 1912 poem by <a href="/facts/Hilaire_Belloc/uhKghRlu">Hilaire Belloc</a>, starting with the lines "The microbe is so very small / You cannot make him out at all,/ But many sanguine people hope / To see him through a microscope.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Microbes_and_Man/TxYyJ2B3">Microbes and Man</a></i> is an admired "classic"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> book, first published in 1969, by the "father figure of British microbiology"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> <a href="/facts/John_Postgate_(microbiologist)/gp0XzXKk">John Postgate</a> on the whole subject of microorganisms and their relationships with humans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> </p> <h3>In film</h3> <p>Microbes feature in many highly dramatized films.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Cinema_of_the_United_States/1HpkUBfd">Hollywood</a> was quick to exploit the possibilities of deadly disease, mass infection and drastic government reaction, starting as early as 1922 with <i><a href="/facts/Nosferatu/IlRQav7X">Nosferatu</a></i>, in which a <a href="/facts/Dracula/DUmP8T48">Dracula</a>-like figure, <a href="/facts/Count_Orlok/dPWvl24h">Count Orlok</a>, sleeps in unhallowed ground contaminated with the <a href="/facts/Black_Death/fztxlxgl">Black Death</a>, which he brings with him wherever he goes. Another classic film, <a href="/facts/Ingmar_Bergman/bg2u5Flu">Ingmar Bergman</a>'s 1957 <i><a href="/facts/The_Seventh_Seal/jSgsDAQG">The Seventh Seal</a></i>, deals with the plague theme very differently, with the <a href="/facts/Grim_reaper/sjp81fjl">grim reaper</a> directly represented by an actor in a hood. More recently, the 1971 <i><a href="/facts/The_Andromeda_Strain_(film)/nXlNa9wX">The Andromeda Strain</a></i>, based on <a href="/facts/The_Andromeda_Strain/ld8aAVLU">a novel</a> by <a href="/facts/Michael_Crichton/fFkkVqzr">Michael Crichton</a>, portrayed an extraterrestrial microbe contaminating the Earth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> </p> <h3>In music</h3> <p>"<a href="/facts/A_Very_Cellular_Song/xjkm4fWQ">A Very Cellular Song</a>," a song from the British <a href="/facts/Psychedelic_folk/4PouI8yF">psychedelic folk</a> band <a href="/facts/The_Incredible_String_Band/m35qfuoT">The Incredible String Band</a>'s 1968 album <i><a href="/facts/The_Hangman%2527s_Beautiful_Daughter/XDLsL6Tg">The Hangman's Beautiful Daughter</a>,</i> is told partially from the point of view of an <a href="/facts/Amoeba/xxvUal7B">amoeba</a>, a <a href="/facts/Protista/NYVfaGVz">protistan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/COVID-19_pandemic/0xTsh7Ut">COVID-19 pandemic</a> inspired several songs and albums.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> </p> <h3>In art</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Microbial_art/LKDMNGfT">Microbial art</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Microbial_art/LKDMNGfT">Microbial art</a> is the creation of artworks by culturing bacteria, typically on <a href="/facts/Agar_plate/eMdxP8rB">agar plates</a>, to form desired patterns. These may be chosen to <a href="/facts/Fluorescence/qsJVT2qP">fluoresce</a> under ultraviolet light in different colours.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Alexander_Fleming/qvMjfNVA">Alexander Fleming</a>, the discoverer of <a href="/facts/Penicillin/Abo8VQ3p">penicillin</a>, created "germ paintings" using different species of bacteria that were naturally pigmented in different colours.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> </p><p>An instance of a <a href="/facts/Protist/NYVfaGVz">protist</a> in an artwork is the artist <a href="/facts/Louise_Bourgeois/KS4dsyVH">Louise Bourgeois</a>'s <a href="/facts/Bronze/YCYCVIKt">bronze</a> sculpture <i>Amoeba</i>. It has a white <a href="/facts/Patina/IVQsrSMM">patina</a> resembling plaster, and was designed in 1963–5, based on drawings of a pregnant woman's belly that she made as early as the 1940s. According to the <a href="/facts/Tate_Gallery/bHDt1a17">Tate Gallery</a>, the work "is a roughly modelled organic form, its bulges and single opening suggesting a moving, living creature in the stages of evolution."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="negative-interactions">Negative interactions</h2> <h3>Disease</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Pathogen/axMXtV1M">Pathogen</a></p> <p>Microorganisms are the causative agents (<a href="/facts/Pathogen/axMXtV1M">pathogens</a>) in many infectious diseases of humans and domestic animals. <a href="/facts/Pathogenic_bacteria/X5QcVN5j">Pathogenic bacteria</a> cause diseases such as <a href="/facts/Bubonic_plague/N9dCQ3EP">plague</a>, <a href="/facts/Tuberculosis/ggPyovAl">tuberculosis</a> and <a href="/facts/Anthrax/svk0t5G4">anthrax</a>. Protozoa cause diseases including <a href="/facts/Malaria/rN3g58CX">malaria</a>, <a href="/facts/African_trypanosomiasis/zuvUoRKC">sleeping sickness</a>, <a href="/facts/Dysentery/l0yfLtg3">dysentery</a> and <a href="/facts/Toxoplasmosis/6wTKf6SG">toxoplasmosis</a>. Microscopic fungi cause diseases such as <a href="/facts/Ringworm/hFyb8T6n">ringworm</a>, <a href="/facts/Candidiasis/gklGEfuq">candidiasis</a> and <a href="/facts/Histoplasmosis/FfMdb5m8">histoplasmosis</a>. <a href="/facts/Pathogenic_viruses/F1Tth6qP">Pathogenic viruses</a> cause diseases such as <a href="/facts/Influenza/nWuFzh6L">influenza</a>, <a href="/facts/Yellow_fever/feT3DIKu">yellow fever</a> and <a href="/facts/AIDS/RqLIEMuJ">AIDS</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p> <p>The practice of <a href="/facts/Hygiene/zH17q0L0">hygiene</a> was created to prevent <a href="/facts/Infection/182XrncP">infection</a> or <a href="/facts/Food/RgNq6NAK">food</a> spoiling by eliminating microbes, especially bacteria, from the surroundings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> </p> <h3>In agriculture and horticulture</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Plant_pathology/h6DTufWF">Plant pathology</a></p> <p>Microorganisms including <a href="/facts/Bacteria/wC8xSCsU">bacteria</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> fungi, and <a href="/facts/Virus/mf88Bcbl">viruses</a> are important as plant <a href="/facts/Pathogen/axMXtV1M">pathogens</a>, causing disease to <a href="/facts/Crop_plant/JoQKR5R8">crop plants</a>. Fungi cause serious crop diseases such as <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a> leaf rust, <a href="/facts/Wheat/lrk6HdV3">wheat</a> stem rust, and powdery mildew. Bacteria cause plant diseases including leaf spot and crown galls. Viruses cause plant diseases such as leaf mosaic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Oomycete/gFEaABrK">oomycete</a> <i><a href="/facts/Phytophthora_infestans/cSnNMCEg">Phytophthora infestans</a></i> causes potato blight, contributing to the <a href="/facts/Great_Irish_Famine/pn4ByRj8">Great Irish Famine</a> of the 1840s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Tulip_breaking_virus/BQEQ8XJM">tulip breaking virus</a> played a role in the <a href="/facts/Tulip_mania/WP9fQRa8">tulip mania</a> of the <a href="/facts/Dutch_Golden_Age/os3XD3rX">Dutch Golden Age</a>. The famous Semper Augustus tulip, in particular, owed its striking pattern to infection with the plant disease, a kind of <a href="/facts/Mosaic_virus/CWvQmBQR">mosaic virus</a>, making it the most expensive of all the tulip bulbs sold.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Macionis, John J.; Gerber, Linda Marie (2011). Sociology. Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 53. ISBN 978-0137001613. OCLC 652430995. <a href="978-0137001613" target="_blank">978-0137001613</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Hooke, Robert (1665). Micrographia: Or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses, with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon. Courier Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-49564-4. 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Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Duckworth. ISBN 978-1-58567-348-3. <a href="978-1-58567-348-3" target="_blank">978-1-58567-348-3</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Wheelis, Mark (2002). "Biological warfare at the 1346 siege of Caffa". Emerg Infect Dis. 8 (9). Center for Disease Control: 971–5. doi:10.3201/eid0809.010536. PMC 2732530. PMID 12194776. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol8no9/01-0536.htm" target="_blank">https://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol8no9/01-0536.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Barras, Vincent; Greub, Gilbert (2014). "History of biological warfare and bioterrorism". Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 20 (6): 497–502. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12706. 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National Public Radio. <a href="https://www.npr.org/2011/04/25/135638924/where-to-find-the-worlds-most-wicked-bugs" target="_blank">https://www.npr.org/2011/04/25/135638924/where-to-find-the-worlds-most-wicked-bugs</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Russell Working (5 June 2001). "The trial of Unit 731". The Japan Times. <a href="http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2001/06/05/commentary/world-commentary/the-trial-of-unit-731/" target="_blank">http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2001/06/05/commentary/world-commentary/the-trial-of-unit-731/</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>"Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)". BBC. 2014. 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