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Imbolc
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<h2 id="name">Name</h2> <p>The etymology of <i>Imbolc</i> or <i>Imbolg</i> is unclear. A common explanation is that it comes from the <a href="/facts/Old_Irish/79xpaDv5">Old Irish</a> <i>i mbolc</i> (Modern Irish: <i>i mbolg</i>), meaning 'in the belly', and refers to the pregnancy of ewes at this time of year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Joseph_Vendryes/CaYndfGx">Joseph Vendryes</a> derived it from Old Irish <i>imb-</i> (intensive prefix) and <i>folc</i> ('wash, cleanse'), linking it to <i>folcaim</i> ('to wash/cleanse oneself') and suggesting it referred to a <a href="/facts/Ritual_purification/m0QPWCBj">ritual cleansing</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Eric_P._Hamp/jBbWbgp6">Eric P. Hamp</a> derives it from a <a href="/facts/Proto-Indo-European_language/cVLNoM3p">Proto-Indo-European</a> root meaning both 'milk' and 'cleansing'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> The early 10th century <a href="/facts/Sanas_Cormaic/R8Iagt6d">Cormac's Glossary</a> has an entry for <i>Oímelc</i>, calling it the beginning of spring and deriving it from <i>oí-melg</i> ('ewe milk'), explaining it as "the time that sheep's milk comes".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> However, linguists believe this is a <a href="/facts/Folk_etymology/vgVL6xdX">folk etymology</a>; the writer's respelling of the word to give it an understandable origin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>The 12th century <a href="/facts/Book_of_Leinster/IIsLjrsk">Book of Leinster</a> version of the <i><a href="/facts/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3_C%C3%BAailnge/1Iq4Llmp">Táin Bó Cúailnge</a></i> ('Cattle Raid of Cooley') indicates that Imbolc (spelt <i>imolg</i> and <i>imbuilg</i>) is three months after the 1 November festival of Samhain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> In the <a href="/facts/Stowe_manuscripts/SBKKSGWI">Stowe</a> version, a 14th century modernisation of the same text, Imbolc is changed to <i>Fél Brigde</i> (St Brigid's Feast), which suggests that St Brigid's Day replaced or absorbed Imbolc.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> Another Old Irish poem about the <i>Táin</i> in the <i><a href="/facts/Metrical_Dindshenchas/MgYtNxlY">Metrical Dindshenchas</a></i> says: "<i><i>iar n-imbulc, ba garb a ngeilt</i></i>", which <a href="/facts/Edward_Gwynn/7da2JMge">Edward Gwynn</a> translates "after <a href="/facts/Candlemas/JhdGYrPx">Candlemas</a>, rough was their herding".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Candlemas is the Christian holy day which falls on 2 February and is known in Irish as <i>Lá Fhéile <a href="/facts/Muire/c4v0nXfx">Muire</a> na gCoinneal</i>, 'feast day of Mary of the Candles'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>In a 17th century manuscript of the story <i><a href="/facts/Agallamh_na_Sean%C3%B3rach/bcDBb9wJ">Agallamh na Seanórach</a></i>, Imbolc is spelled <i>Iomfhoilcc</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>Peter O'Connell's Irish-English dictionary (1843) identifies <i>Oimelc</i> or <i>Imbulc</i> with <i>Féil Brighde</i>, the Feast of Saint Brigid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="origins">Origins</h2> <p>Historians such as <a href="/facts/Ronald_Hutton/cy8ar6L3">Ronald Hutton</a> and <a href="/facts/D%C3%A1ith%C3%AD_%C3%93_h%C3%93g%C3%A1in/otdB2SNx">Dáithí Ó hÓgáin</a> argue that Imbolc must have pre-Christian origins.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> It is suggested that Imbolc originally marked the onset of the <a href="/facts/Lambing/pqakkuLX">lambing</a> season,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> the arrival of fresh <a href="/facts/Sheep_milk/LULquIya">sheep milk</a> after a period of food shortage,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> and the beginning of preparations for the spring <a href="/facts/Sowing/Ec5vVhRf">sowing</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Joseph_Vendryes/CaYndfGx">Joseph Vendryes</a> and <a href="/facts/Christian-Joseph_Guyonvarc%27h/CJ6Tcvlu">Christian-Joseph Guyonvarc'h</a> suggested that it may have also been a purification festival, similar to the <a href="/facts/Religion_in_ancient_Rome/QrNwmgPM">ancient Roman</a> festival <a href="/facts/Lupercalia/4k4ntf7x"><i>Februa</i> or <i>Lupercalia</i></a>, which took place at the same time of year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p><p>Some scholars argue that the date of Imbolc was significant in Ireland since the <a href="/facts/Neolithic_Europe/rK7oRvBP">Neolithic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> A few <a href="/facts/Passage_tomb/RqpFg5ce">passage tombs</a> in Ireland are aligned with the sunrise around the times of Imbolc and Samhain. This includes the <a href="/facts/Mound_of_the_Hostages/8fAUu5rn">Mound of the Hostages</a> on the <a href="/facts/Hill_of_Tara/qBlA4xKa">Hill of Tara</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Loughcrew/82fy7Lx8">Cairn L</a> at <a href="/facts/Slieve_na_Calliagh/SHghv1Bd">Slieve na Calliagh</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Frank Prendergast argues that this alignment is so rare that it is a product of chance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Hutton writes that Imbolc must have been "important enough for its date to be dedicated subsequently to <a href="/facts/Brigid_of_Kildare/RxUINWjJ">Brigid</a> … the Mother Saint of Ireland".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Cogitosus/zUNxdyNQ">Cogitosus</a>, writing in the late 7th century, is the first to mention a feast day of Saint Brigid being observed in <a href="/facts/Kildare/08CpfYyg">Kildare</a> on 1 February.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Brigid is said to have lived in the 6th century and founded the important monastery of Kildare. She became the focus of a major cult. However, there are few historical facts about her, and her early <a href="/facts/Hagiography/CtKDrTXm">hagiographies</a> "are mainly anecdotes and miracle stories, some of which are deeply rooted in Irish pagan folklore".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> It is suggested that Saint Brigid is based on the goddess <a href="/facts/Brigid/RAoyITUs">Brigid</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> or that she was a real person and the lore of the goddess was transferred to her.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Like the saint, the goddess is associated with wisdom, poetry, healing, protection, blacksmithing, and domesticated animals, according to <i><a href="/facts/Sanas_Cormaic/R8Iagt6d">Cormac's Glossary</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn/S8IvELm3">Lebor Gabála Érenn</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> It is suggested that Imbolc, which celebrates the start of lambing, was linked with Brigid in her role as a fertility goddess.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Hutton says that the goddess might have already been linked to Imbolc and this was continued by making it the saint's feast day. Or it could be that Imbolc's association with milk drew the saint to it because of a legend that she had been the wet-nurse of Christ.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p><p>Prominent folklorist <a href="/facts/Se%C3%A1n_%C3%93_S%C3%BAilleabh%C3%A1in/tfPhq5SG">Seán Ó Súilleabháin</a> wrote: "The main significance of the Feast of St. Brigid would seem to be that it was a Christianisation of one of the focal points of the agricultural year in Ireland, the starting point of preparations for the spring sowing. Every manifestation of the cult of the saint (or of the deity she replaced) is bound up in some way with food production".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="historical-customs">Historical customs</h2> <p>The festival of Imbolc is mentioned in several <a href="/facts/Early_Irish_literature/NXTKE3dg">early Irish manuscripts</a>, but they say very little about its original rites and customs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> Imbolc was one of four main seasonal festivals in <a href="/facts/Gaelic_Ireland/xfPXQ3da">Gaelic Ireland</a>, along with <a href="/facts/Beltane/dwAX3d1c">Beltane</a> (1 May), <a href="/facts/Lughnasadh/dPwvlXJR">Lughnasadh</a> (1 August) and <a href="/facts/Samhain/WfKkpR8P">Samhain</a> (1 November). The tale <i><a href="/facts/Tochmarc_Emire/nsz7W1fY">Tochmarc Emire</a></i>, which survives in a 10th-century version, names <i>Imbolc</i> as one of four seasonal festivals, and says it is "when the ewes are milked at spring's beginning".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> This linking of Imbolc with the arrival of lambs and sheep's milk probably reflected farming customs that ensured lambs were born before calves. In late winter/early spring, sheep could survive better than cows on the sparse vegetation, and farmers sought to resume milking as soon as possible due to their dwindling stores.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> The <i>Hibernica Minora</i> includes an <a href="/facts/Old_Irish/79xpaDv5">Old Irish</a> poem about the four seasonal festivals. Translated by <a href="/facts/Kuno_Meyer/NlSfyJrs">Kuno Meyer</a> (1894), it says, "Tasting of each food according to order, this is what is proper at Imbolc: washing the hands, the feet, the head". This suggests ritual cleansing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> As a seasonal festival, the timing of Imbolc might originally have been more fluid and linked to the onset of lambing<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> and the blooming of <a href="/facts/Blackthorn/NtD0Y4zd">blackthorn</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p><p>From the 18th century to the mid-20th century, many St Brigid's Day traditions were recorded by <a href="/facts/Folkloristics/l0hT9bS9">folklorists</a> and other writers. They tell us how it was celebrated then and shed light on how it may have been celebrated in the past.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p> <h3>Brigid's crosses</h3> <p>In Ireland, <a href="/facts/Brigid%27s_cross/7GI3VRUd">Brigid's crosses</a> (<i>pictured</i>) are traditionally made on St Brigid's Day. A Brigid's cross usually consists of rushes woven into a four-armed equilateral cross, although there were also three-armed crosses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> They are traditionally hung over doors, windows, and stables to welcome Brigid and for protection against fire, lightning, illness, and evil spirits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> The crosses are generally left until the next St Brigid's Day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> In western <a href="/facts/Connacht/rfQFugRg">Connacht</a>, people made a <i><i>Crios Bríde</i></i> (<i>Bríd</i>'s girdle); a great ring of rushes with a cross woven in the middle. Young boys would carry it around the village, inviting people to step through it and be blessed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> </p> <h3>Welcoming Brigid</h3> <p>On St Brigid's Eve, Brigid was said to visit virtuous households and bless the inhabitants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> As Brigid represented the light half of the year and the power that will bring people from the dark season of winter into spring, her presence was vital at this time of year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> </p><p>Before going to bed, people would leave items of clothing or strips of cloth outside for Brigid to bless.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> The next morning, they would be brought inside and believed to have powers of healing and protection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> </p><p>Brigid would be symbolically invited into the house and a bed would often be made for her. In Ulster, a family member representing Brigid would circle the home three times carrying <a href="/facts/Juncus/zuSThEaQ">rushes</a>. They would knock the door three times, asking to be let in. On the third attempt, they are welcomed in, a meal is had, and the rushes are then made into crosses or a bed for Brigid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> In 18th-century <a href="/facts/Isle_of_Man/HG7bYyA8">Mann</a>, the custom was to stand at the door with a bundle of rushes and say "Brede, Brede, come to my house tonight. Open the door for Brede and let Brede come in". Similarly, in <a href="/facts/County_Donegal/ABbl3HoH">County Donegal</a>, the family member who was sent to fetch the rushes knelt on the front step and repeated three times, "Go on your knees, open your eyes, and let in St Brigid". Those inside the house answered three times, "She's welcome".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> The rushes were then strewn on the floor as a carpet or bed for Brigid. In the 19th century, some old Manx women would make a bed for Brigid in the barn with food, ale, and a candle on a table.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> The custom of making Brigid's bed was prevalent in the <a href="/facts/Hebrides/zsj2EcdF">Hebrides</a> of Scotland, where it was recorded as far back as the 17th century. A bed of hay or a basket-like cradle would be made for Brigid. Someone would then call out three times: "<i><i>a Bhríd, a Bhríd, thig a stigh as gabh do leabaidh</i></i>" ("<i>Bríd Bríd</i>, come in; thy bed is ready").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> A corn dolly called the <i>dealbh Bríde</i> (icon of Brigid) would be laid in the bed and a white wand, usually made of birch, would be laid beside it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> It represented the wand that Brigid was said to use to make the vegetation start growing again.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> Women in some parts of the Hebrides would also dance while holding a large cloth and calling out "<i><i>Bridean, Bridean, thig an nall 's dean do leabaidh</i></i>" ("<i>Bríd, Bríd</i>, come over and make your bed").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> </p><p>In the Outer Hebrides, ashes from the fire would be raked smooth, and, in the morning, people would look for some mark on the ashes as a sign that Brigid had visited.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> If there was no mark, they believed bad fortune would come unless they <a href="/facts/Animal_sacrifice/XRCuvP82">buried a cockerel</a> at the meeting of three streams as an offering and burned incense on their fire that night.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> </p> <h3>Brigid's procession</h3> <p>In Ireland and Scotland, a representation of Brigid would be paraded around the community by girls and young women. Usually, it was a doll known as a <i><i>Brídeóg</i></i> ('little Brigid'), called a 'Breedhoge' or 'Biddy' in English. It would be made from <a href="/facts/Juncus/zuSThEaQ">rushes</a> or <a href="/facts/Reed_(plant)/yb90F7ND">reeds</a> and clad in bits of cloth, flowers, or shells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> In the Hebrides of Scotland, a bright shell or crystal called the <i><i>reul-iuil Bríde</i></i> (guiding star of Brigid) was set on its chest. The girls would carry it in procession while singing a hymn to Brigid. All wore white with their hair unbound as a symbol of purity and youth. They visited every house in the area, where they received either food or more decoration for the <i>Brídeóg</i>. Afterward, they feasted in a house with the <i>Brídeóg</i> set in a place of honour, and put it to bed with lullabies. When the meal was done, the local young men humbly asked for admission, made obeisance to the <i>Brídeóg</i>, and joined the girls in dancing and merrymaking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> In many places, only unwed girls could carry the <i>Brídeóg</i>, but in some both boys and girls carried it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> </p><p>In parts of Ireland, rather than carrying a <i>Brídeóg</i>, a girl took on the role of Brigid. Escorted by other girls, she went house-to-house wearing 'Brigid's crown' and carrying 'Brigid's shield' and 'Brigid's cross', all made from rushes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> The procession in some places included 'strawboys', who wore conical straw hats, masks and played folk music; much like the <a href="/facts/Wren_Day/pYrdCHTJ">wrenboys</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> Up until the mid-20th century, children in Ireland still went house-to-house asking for pennies for "poor Biddy", or money for the poor. In <a href="/facts/County_Kerry/gjVWlWC2">County Kerry</a>, men in white robes sang from house to house.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> </p> <h3>Weather lore</h3> <p>The festival is traditionally associated with <a href="/facts/Weather_lore/1zTyusKM">weather lore</a>, and the old tradition of watching to see if serpents or badgers came from their winter dens may be a forerunner of the North American <a href="/facts/Groundhog_Day/1BNFKfgw">Groundhog Day</a>. A Scottish Gaelic proverb about the day is: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><p><i>Thig an nathair as an tollLà donn Brìde,Ged robh trì troighean dhen t-sneachdAir leac an làir.</i></p></td><td><p>The serpent will come from the holeOn the brown Day of Bríde,Though there should be three feet of snowOn the flat surface of the ground.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a></p></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Imbolc was believed to be when the <a href="/facts/Cailleach/Bed0Xjjh">Cailleach</a>—the divine <a href="/facts/Hag/Fvdg2PId">hag</a> of Gaelic tradition—gathers her firewood for the rest of the winter. Legend has it that if she wishes to make the winter last a good while longer, she will make sure the weather on Imbolc is bright and sunny so that she can gather plenty of firewood. Therefore, people would be relieved if Imbolc is a day of foul weather, as it means the Cailleach is asleep and winter is almost over.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> At Imbolc on the Isle of Man, where she is known as <i><i>Caillagh ny Groamagh</i></i>, the Cailleach is said to take the form of a gigantic bird carrying sticks in her beak.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> </p> <h3>Other customs</h3> <p>Families would have a special meal or supper on St Brigid's Eve to mark the last night of winter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> This typically included food such as <a href="/facts/Colcannon/my6QtC8x">colcannon</a>, <a href="/facts/Sowans/7qDYgfmv">sowans</a>, <a href="/facts/Dumpling/3RFI27Bn">dumplings</a>, <a href="/facts/Barmbrack/0b0WvP8R">barmbrack</a> or <a href="/facts/Bannock_(British_food)/sGY8s7Fs">bannocks</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> Often, some of the food and drink would be set aside for Brigid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> </p><p>In Ireland, a <a href="/facts/Spring_cleaning/Y2vCBcHM">spring cleaning</a> was customary around St Brigid's Day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> </p><p>People traditionally visit <a href="/facts/Holy_well/MCcFFaes">holy wells</a> and pray for health while walking '<a href="/facts/Sunwise/N1berfUv">sunwise</a>' around the well. They might then leave offerings, typically coins or strips of cloth/ribbon (see <a href="/facts/Clootie_well/5j4zL7an">clootie well</a>). Historically, water from the well was used to bless the home, family members, livestock, and fields.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> </p><p>Scottish writer <a href="/facts/Donald_Alexander_Mackenzie/G7f9veyg">Donald Alexander Mackenzie</a> also recorded in the 19th century that offerings were made "to earth and sea". The offering could be milk poured into the ground or porridge poured into the water as a <a href="/facts/Libation/V3K9ljx9">libation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> </p><p>In <a href="/facts/County_Kilkenny/MfxCJS2x">County Kilkenny</a>, graves were decorated with box and laurel flowers (or any other flowers that could be found at that time). A Branch of Virginity was decorated with white ribbons and placed on the grave of a recently deceased maiden.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="present-day-customs">Present day customs</h2> <p>St Brigid's Day and Imbolc are observed by Christians and non-Christians. Some people still make Brigid's crosses and <i>Brídeog</i>s or visit holy wells dedicated to St Brigid on 1 February.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> Brigid's Day parades have been revived in the town of <a href="/facts/Killorglin/mxrLpRAa">Killorglin</a>, <a href="/facts/County_Kerry/gjVWlWC2">County Kerry</a>, which holds a yearly "Biddy's Day Festival". Men and women wearing elaborate straw hats and masks visit public houses carrying a <i>Brídeóg</i> to ward off evil spirits and bring good luck for the coming year. There are folk music sessions, historical talks, film screenings, drama productions, and cross-weaving workshops. The main event is a torchlight parade of 'Biddy groups' through the town.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> Since 2009 a yearly "Brigid of Faughart Festival" is held in <a href="/facts/County_Louth/z5fRqXdg">County Louth</a>. This celebrates Brigid as both saint and goddess and includes the long-standing pilgrimage to <a href="/facts/Faughart/deave3aH">Faughart</a> as well as music, poetry, and lectures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> The "Imbolc International Music Festival" of folk music is held in <a href="/facts/Derry/z0uINMsC">Derry</a> at this time of year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> In England, the village of <a href="/facts/Marsden,_West_Yorkshire/NVj11Fmq">Marsden, West Yorkshire</a> holds a biennial "Imbolc Fire Festival" which includes a lantern procession, fire performers, music, fireworks, and a symbolic battle between giant characters representing the <a href="/facts/Green_Man/CWHWQbFs">Green Man</a> and <a href="/facts/Jack_Frost/cnB5P13C">Jack Frost</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> </p><p>More recently, <a href="/facts/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Ireland/SEwTeNvP">Irish embassies</a> have hosted yearly events on St Brigid's Day to celebrate famous women of the <a href="/facts/Irish_diaspora/srMnk6fn">Irish diaspora</a> and showcase the work of Irish female emigrants in the arts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> In 2022, Dublin hosted its first "Brigit Festival", celebrating "the contributions of Irish women" past and present through exhibitions, tours, lectures, films, and a concert.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> </p><p>In 2016, the <a href="/facts/Green_Party_(Ireland)/rreJeou5">Green Party</a> proposed that St Brigid's Day be made a <a href="/facts/Public_holiday_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland/cW5zTPBD">public holiday in Ireland</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> This was put into effect in 2022 after the party entered government, and "Imbolc/St Brigid's Day" has been a yearly public holiday since 2023 to mark both the saint's feast day and the seasonal festival.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> A government statement noted that it would be the first Irish public holiday named after a woman, and "means that all four of the traditional Celtic seasonal festival will now be public holidays". The public holiday is observed on the first Monday of February, except for years where 1 February happens to fall on a Friday, in which case the holiday is observed on that Friday instead.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> </p> <h3>Neopaganism</h3> <p>Imbolc or Imbolc-based festivals are observed by some <a href="/facts/Neopaganism/6RK8f29W">Neopagans</a>, though practices vary widely. While some attempt to closely emulate the historic accounts of Imbolc, others rely on many sources to inspire their celebrations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> Festivals typically fall near 1 February in the Northern Hemisphere and 1 August in the Southern Hemisphere.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> </p><p>Some Neopagans celebrate the festival at the astronomical midpoint between the <a href="/facts/Winter_solstice/D18JPu6z">winter solstice</a> and spring <a href="/facts/Equinox/s8kaFsD2">equinox</a> — in the Northern Hemisphere, this is usually on 3 or 4 February — while others rely on the full moon nearest this point.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> Some Neopagans designate Imbolc based on other natural phenomena, such as the emergence of primroses, dandelions, or similar local flora.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> </p> <h4>Celtic Reconstructionist</h4> <p><a href="/facts/Celtic_Reconstructionist_Paganism/TICyepVj">Celtic Reconstructionists</a> strive to reconstruct <a href="/facts/Ancient_Celtic_religion/FKgV8XEV">ancient Celtic religion</a>. Their religious practices are based on research and historical accounts,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> but may be modified slightly to suit modern life. They avoid <a href="/facts/Syncretism/q4IMH40F">syncretism</a> (i.e., combining practises from different cultures). They usually celebrate the festival at the start of spring, or on the full moon nearest this. Many use traditional songs and rites from sources such as <i>The Silver Bough</i> and <i>The Carmina Gadelica</i>. It is a time of honouring the goddess Brigid, and many of her dedicants choose this time of year for rituals to her.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a> </p> <h4>Wicca and Neo-Druidry</h4> <p><a href="/facts/Wiccans/q623sLWu">Wiccans</a> and <a href="/facts/Neo-Druidry/j4nKpvum">Neo-Druids</a> celebrate Imbolc as one of the eight Sabbats in their <a href="/facts/Wheel_of_the_Year/5jTDbgj6">Wheel of the Year</a>, following Midwinter and preceding <a href="/facts/Ostara/dj9sHUmE">Ostara</a>. In Wicca, Imbolc is commonly associated with the goddess Brigid; as such, it is sometimes seen as a "women's holiday" with specific rites only for female members of a <a href="/facts/Coven/TPKbQFaB">coven</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> Among <a href="/facts/Dianic_Wicca/nnfgWzSv">Dianic Wiccans</a>, Imbolc is the traditional time for <a href="/facts/Initiation/y8KmtN2n">initiations</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Holidays portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Candlemas/JhdGYrPx">Candlemas</a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Faoilleach/g2QtQla5">Faoilleach</a></i></li> <li><a href="/facts/Irish_calendar/CaFDxuua">Irish calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Lichun/H4EUGPok">Lichun</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Quarter_days/x1Q4RpVC">Quarter days</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Vasant_Panchami/9bqYAFI4">Vasant Panchami</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wheel_of_the_Year/5jTDbgj6">Wheel of the Year</a> (Cross-Quarter days)</li></ul> <h3>Bibliography</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Kevin_Danaher/g8nJcaG1">Danaher, Kevin</a> (1972). <i>The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs</i>. Cork: Mercier Press. p. 38. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-85635-093-8.</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Carmina_Gadelica/kv9Jeu1v">Carmichael, Alexander</a> (1992). <i>Carmina Gadelica: Hymns and Incantations</i> (with illustrative notes onwards, rites, and customs dying and obsolete/ orally collected in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland). Hudson, NY: Lindisfarne Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-940262-50-8.</li> <li>Chadwick, Nora (1970). <i>The Celts</i>. London: Penguin. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-14-021211-2.</li> <li><a href="/facts/F._Marian_McNeill/dh7dKhAk">McNeill, F. Marian</a> (1959). <i>The Silver Bough</i>, Vol. 1–4. Glasgow: William MacLellan.</li> <li>Ó Catháin, Séamas (1995). <i>Festival of Brigit</i>.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li> The dictionary definition of Imbolc at Wiktionary</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Danaher 1972, p. 38 - Danaher, Kevin (1972). The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs. Cork: Mercier Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-85635-093-8. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>McNeill, F. Marian (1959, 1961) The Silver Bough, Vol. 1–4. William MacLellan, Glasgow; Vol. 2, pp. 11–42 <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Cunliffe, Barry (1997). The Ancient Celts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Page 188-190. <a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" target="_blank">/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Berger, Pamela (1985). The Goddess Obscured: Transformation of the Grain Protectress from Goddess to Saint. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 70–73. ISBN 978-0-8070-6723-9. <a href="978-0-8070-6723-9" target="_blank">978-0-8070-6723-9</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Danaher 1972, p. 38 - Danaher, Kevin (1972). The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs. Cork: Mercier Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-85635-093-8. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>McNeill, F. Marian (1959, 1961) The Silver Bough, Vol. 1–4. William MacLellan, Glasgow; Vol. 2, pp. 11–42 <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"Government agrees Covid Recognition Payment and New Public Holiday". Government of Ireland. Department of the Taoiseach. 19 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022. <a href="https://www.gov.ie/en/press-release/b926b-government-agrees-covid-recognition-payment-and-new-public-holiday/" target="_blank">https://www.gov.ie/en/press-release/b926b-government-agrees-covid-recognition-payment-and-new-public-holiday/</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Chadwick, Nora K. (1970). The Celts. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-14-021211-2. <a href="978-0-14-021211-2" target="_blank">978-0-14-021211-2</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Vendryes, J., "Imbolc", Revue Celtique 41 (1924). pp.241–244. <a href="/wiki/Revue_Celtique" target="_blank">/wiki/Revue_Celtique</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Patterson, Nerys. Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland. University of Notre Dame Press, 1994. p.129 <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Hamp, Eric (1979–1980). "Imbolc, Óimelc". Studia Celtica (14/15): 106–113. <a href="/wiki/Eric_P._Hamp" target="_blank">/wiki/Eric_P._Hamp</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Meyer, Kuno, Sanas Cormaic: an Old-Irish Glossary compiled by Cormac úa Cuilennáin, King-Bishop of Cashel in the ninth century (1912). <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Kelly, Fergus. Early Irish Farming: A Study Based Mainly on the Law-texts of the 7th and 8th centuries AD. School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1997. p.460 <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Ó Cathasaigh, Tomás (1993). "Mythology in Táin Bó Cúailnge", in Studien zur Táin Bó Cúailnge, p.123 <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Torma, Thomas (2002). "Imbolc, Candlemas and The Feast of St Brigit". Cosmos: The Journal of the Traditional Cosmology Society. 18: 80. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Hamp, Eric (1979–1980). "Imbolc, Óimelc". Studia Celtica (14/15): 106–113. <a href="/wiki/Eric_P._Hamp" target="_blank">/wiki/Eric_P._Hamp</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>MacKillop, James (1998). Dictionary of Celtic mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-19-280120-3. <a href="978-0-19-280120-3" target="_blank">978-0-19-280120-3</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Williams, Éimear, "Bealtaine and Imbolg (oimelc) in Cormac’s Glossary", Studia Celtica 39 (2005): pp.123–143. <a href="/wiki/Studia_Celtica" target="_blank">/wiki/Studia_Celtica</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Joyce, Patrick Weston (1920). A Social History of Ancient Ireland. Longmans, Green & Company. p. 388. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Hutton, Ronald (1996). Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain. Oxford University Press. pp. 134–138. ISBN 978-0-19-820570-8. <a href="978-0-19-820570-8" target="_blank">978-0-19-820570-8</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopedia of the Irish folk tradition. Prentice-Hall Press, 1991. pp.60–61 <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Koch, John T. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. 2006. p. 287. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Chadwick, Nora K. (1970). The Celts. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-14-021211-2. <a href="978-0-14-021211-2" target="_blank">978-0-14-021211-2</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Patterson, Nerys. Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland. University of Notre Dame Press, 1994. p.129 <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Danaher 1972, p. 13 - Danaher, Kevin (1972). The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs. Cork: Mercier Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-85635-093-8. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Patterson, Nerys. Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland. University of Notre Dame Press, 1994. p.129 <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Wright, Brian. Brigid: Goddess, Druidess and Saint. The History Press, 2011. p. 83–85 <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>"Imbolc". Newgrange UNESCO World Heritage website. Retrieved 1 June 2011. <a href="http://www.newgrange.com/imbolc.htm" target="_blank">http://www.newgrange.com/imbolc.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Moriarty, Sean Keir. "Orthostat: The Mound of the Hostages": p. 34 <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270104708_Orthostat_The_Mound_of_the_Hostages" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270104708_Orthostat_The_Mound_of_the_Hostages</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Brennan, Martin. The Stones of Time: Calendars, Sundials, and Stone Chambers of Ancient Ireland. Inner Traditions, 1994. pp. 110–11 <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Prendergast, Frank (2021). Gunzburg, Darrelyn (ed.). The Archaeology of Height: Cultural Meaning in the Relativity of Irish Megalithic Tomb Siting. London, New York, Oxford, New Delhi, Sydne: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 13–42. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Hutton, Ronald (1996). Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain. Oxford University Press. pp. 134–138. ISBN 978-0-19-820570-8. <a href="978-0-19-820570-8" target="_blank">978-0-19-820570-8</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopedia of the Irish folk tradition. Prentice-Hall Press, 1991. pp.60–61 <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Farmer, David. The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Fifth Edition, Revised). Oxford University Press, 2011. p.66 <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>MacKillop, James (1998). Dictionary of Celtic mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-19-280120-3. <a href="978-0-19-280120-3" target="_blank">978-0-19-280120-3</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopedia of the Irish folk tradition. Prentice-Hall Press, 1991. pp.60–61 <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopedia of the Irish folk tradition. Prentice-Hall Press, 1991. pp.60–61 <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Wright, Brian. Brigid: Goddess, Druidess and Saint. The History Press, 2011. pp.26–27 <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Koch, John T. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. 2006. p. 287. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Hutton, Ronald (1996). Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain. Oxford University Press. pp. 134–138. ISBN 978-0-19-820570-8. <a href="978-0-19-820570-8" target="_blank">978-0-19-820570-8</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Danaher 1972, p. 13 - Danaher, Kevin (1972). The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs. Cork: Mercier Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-85635-093-8. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Hutton, Ronald (1996). Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain. Oxford University Press. pp. 134–138. ISBN 978-0-19-820570-8. <a href="978-0-19-820570-8" target="_blank">978-0-19-820570-8</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Hutton, Ronald (1996). Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain. Oxford University Press. pp. 134–138. ISBN 978-0-19-820570-8. <a href="978-0-19-820570-8" target="_blank">978-0-19-820570-8</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>"The Wooing of Emer by Cú Chulainn". Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition. <a href="https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T301021.html" target="_blank">https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T301021.html</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Patterson, Nerys. Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland. University of Notre Dame Press, 1994. p.129 <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Patterson, Nerys. Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland. University of Notre Dame Press, 1994. p.129 <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Koch, John T. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. 2006. p. 287. <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Aveni, Anthony F. (2004). The Book of the Year: A Brief History of Our Seasonal Holidays. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-517154-9. <a href="978-0-19-517154-9" target="_blank">978-0-19-517154-9</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>McNeill, F. Marian (1959, 1961) The Silver Bough, Vol. 1–4. William MacLellan, Glasgow; Vol. 2, pp. 11–42 <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Danaher 1972, pp. 200–229 - Danaher, Kevin (1972). The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs. Cork: Mercier Press. p. 38. 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