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Chitin
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<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2> <p>The English word "chitin" comes from the <a href="/facts/French_language/qe1DnaQh">French</a> word <i>chitine</i>, which was derived in 1821 from the <a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a> word χιτών (<i>khitōn</i>) meaning covering.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>A similar word, "<a href="/facts/Chiton/d56zhXge">chiton</a>", refers to a marine animal with a protective shell. </p> <h2 id="chemistry-physical-properties-and-biological-function">Chemistry, physical properties and biological function</h2> <p>The structure of chitin was determined by <a href="/facts/Albert_Hofmann/aMkarPVc">Albert Hofmann</a> in 1929. Hofmann hydrolyzed chitin using a crude preparation of the enzyme chitinase, which he obtained from the snail <i>Helix pomatia</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p><p>Chitin is a modified <a href="/facts/Polysaccharide/lqXq2cJU">polysaccharide</a> that contains nitrogen; it is <a href="/facts/Biosynthesis/aFk7Tk7f">synthesized</a> from units of <a href="/facts/N-acetylglucosamine/bp9qxgNS"><i>N</i>-acetyl-D-glucosamine</a> (to be precise, 2-(acetylamino)-2-deoxy-D-glucose). These units form covalent β-(1→4)-linkages (like the linkages between <a href="/facts/Glucose/oUSkoLCD">glucose</a> units forming <a href="/facts/Cellulose/wYPafTU0">cellulose</a>). Therefore, chitin may be described as <a href="/facts/Cellulose/wYPafTU0">cellulose</a> with one <a href="/facts/Hydroxyl/1Hs2QAEv">hydroxyl</a> group on each <a href="/facts/Monomer/Gw3CltMb">monomer</a> replaced with an <a href="/facts/Acetyl/rRmtXdn3">acetyl</a> <a href="/facts/Amine/JvfYJfP6">amine</a> group. This allows for increased <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_bonding/85V86IIg">hydrogen bonding</a> between adjacent <a href="/facts/Polymers/eF32E50K">polymers</a>, giving the chitin-polymer matrix increased strength. </p><p>In its pure, unmodified form, chitin is translucent, pliable, resilient, and quite tough. In most <a href="/facts/Arthropod/JKJLTFzp">arthropods</a>, however, it is often modified, occurring largely as a component of <a href="/facts/Composite_material/UBysQldh">composite materials</a>, such as in <a href="/facts/Sclerotin/9kMUVPJK">sclerotin</a>, a tanned <a href="/facts/Protein/Jxmagu3E">proteinaceous</a> matrix, which forms much of the <a href="/facts/Exoskeleton/Wlmru4GW">exoskeleton</a> of <a href="/facts/Insect/IgDNvnUL">insects</a>. Combined with <a href="/facts/Calcium_carbonate/UQ1wLFna">calcium carbonate</a>, as in the shells of <a href="/facts/Crustacean/PBobIVJP">crustaceans</a> and <a href="/facts/Mollusc/1elgknsQ">molluscs</a>, chitin produces a much stronger composite. This composite material is much harder and stiffer than pure chitin, and is tougher and less brittle than pure <a href="/facts/Calcium_carbonate/UQ1wLFna">calcium carbonate</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Another difference between pure and composite forms can be seen by comparing the flexible body wall of a <a href="/facts/Caterpillar/PMgzj7F7">caterpillar</a> (mainly chitin) to the stiff, light <a href="/facts/Elytron/TjlgY2PK">elytron</a> of a <a href="/facts/Beetle/hv33fxsL">beetle</a> (containing a large proportion of <a href="/facts/Sclerotin/9kMUVPJK">sclerotin</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p><p>In butterfly wing scales, chitin is organized into stacks of <a href="/facts/Gyroid/AghQxeMP">gyroids</a> constructed of chitin <a href="/facts/Photonic_crystal/R763CtuW">photonic crystals</a> that produce various <a href="/facts/Iridescent/ykc1opK8">iridescent</a> colors serving <a href="/facts/Phenotype/vxWXKGLj">phenotypic</a> signaling and communication for mating and foraging.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> The elaborate chitin gyroid construction in butterfly wings creates a model of optical devices having potential for innovations in <a href="/facts/Biomimicry/9TrIy29q">biomimicry</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Scarab_beetle/5h4P6CFH">Scarab beetles</a> in the genus <i><a href="/facts/Cyphochilus/LBdaG6oy">Cyphochilus</a></i> also utilize chitin to form extremely thin <a href="/facts/Scale_(anatomy)/Sv9n8Edz">scales</a> (five to fifteen <a href="/facts/Micrometre/7eDFxD2L">micrometres</a> thick) that diffusely reflect white light. These scales are networks of randomly ordered filaments of chitin with diameters on the scale of hundreds of <a href="/facts/Nanometre/a98sjHyu">nanometres</a>, which serve to scatter light. The <a href="/facts/Scattering/nMou7lEH">multiple scattering</a> of light is thought to play a role in the unusual whiteness of the scales.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> In addition, some social wasps, such as <i><a href="/facts/Protopolybia_chartergoides/jRJcSla3">Protopolybia chartergoides</a></i>, orally secrete material containing predominantly chitin to reinforce the outer nest envelopes, composed of paper.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Chitosan/BL11EEVL">Chitosan</a> is produced commercially by <a href="/facts/Deacetylation/PNMzRM4r">deacetylation</a> of chitin by treatment with <a href="/facts/Sodium_hydroxide/xjtdYtq7">sodium hydroxide</a>. Chitosan has a wide range of biomedical applications including wound healing, drug delivery and tissue engineering.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Due to its specific intermolecular hydrogen bonding network, dissolving chitin in water is very difficult.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Chitosan (with a degree of deacetylation of more than ~28%), on the other hand, can be dissolved in dilute acidic aqueous solutions below a pH of 6.0 such as acetic, formic and lactic acids. Chitosan with a degree of deacetylation greater than ~49% is soluble in water<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h3>Humans and other mammals</h3> <p>Humans and other mammals have <a href="/facts/Chitinase/tAmj0pB5">chitinase</a> and <a href="/facts/CHI3L1/8w0eoElj">chitinase-like proteins</a> that can degrade chitin; they also possess several <a href="/facts/Immune_receptor/myRgAvX0">immune receptors</a> that can recognize chitin and its degradation products, initiating an <a href="/facts/Immune_response/dtLulqIy">immune response</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p><p>Chitin is sensed mostly in the lungs or <a href="/facts/Gastrointestinal_tract/nK2zwqBS">gastrointestinal tract</a> where it can activate the <a href="/facts/Innate_immune_system/lz4BpSQI">innate immune system</a> through <a href="/facts/Eosinophil/yhIKA8bE">eosinophils</a> or <a href="/facts/Macrophage/z7hkQu3o">macrophages</a>, as well as an <a href="/facts/Adaptive_immune_response/bc7zT1Jo">adaptive immune response</a> through <a href="/facts/T_helper/nhwAYkDj">T helper</a> cells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Keratinocyte/drqhJjuS">Keratinocytes</a> in skin can also react to chitin or chitin fragments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h3>Plants</h3> <p>Plants also have receptors that can cause a response to chitin, namely chitin elicitor receptor kinase 1 and chitin elicitor-binding protein.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> The first chitin receptor was cloned in 2006.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> When the receptors are activated by chitin, genes related to plant defense are expressed, and <a href="/facts/Jasmonate/zILw8Ncl">jasmonate</a> hormones are activated, which in turn activate systemic defenses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Commensalism/KnJkboX0">Commensal</a> fungi have ways to interact with the host immune response that, as of 2016<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chitin&action=edit">[update]</a>, were not well understood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Some pathogens produce chitin-binding proteins that mask the chitin they shed from these receptors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Zymoseptoria_tritici/EhGXRq7U">Zymoseptoria tritici</a></i> is an example of a fungal pathogen that has such blocking proteins; it is a major pest in <a href="/facts/Wheat/lrk6HdV3">wheat</a> crops.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="fossil-record">Fossil record</h2> <p class="note">For more on the preservation potential of chitin and other biopolymers, see <a href="/facts/Taphonomy/x4zxN2Hm">taphonomy</a>.</p> <p>Chitin was probably present in the exoskeletons of <a href="/facts/Cambrian/jIfzKtod">Cambrian</a> arthropods such as <a href="/facts/Trilobite/Tk8ppaKc">trilobites</a>. The oldest preserved (intact) chitin samples thus far reported are dated to the <a href="/facts/Oligocene/n3gnNogo">Oligocene</a>, about <a href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=25">25</a> million years ago, from specimens encased in <a href="/facts/Amber/GHP6h5gx">amber</a> where the chitin has not completely degraded.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="uses">Uses</h2> <h3>Agriculture</h3> <p>Chitin is a good inducer of plant <a href="/facts/Plant_defense_against_herbivory/2MKbXxUp">defense mechanisms</a> for controlling <a href="/facts/Plant_disease/h6DTufWF">diseases</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> It has potential for use as a soil <a href="/facts/Fertilizer/ysh3r6NJ">fertilizer</a> or <a href="/facts/Soil_conditioner/35DWU3Cc">conditioner</a> to improve fertility and plant resilience that may enhance crop yields.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p> <h3>Industrial</h3> <p>Chitin is used in many industrial processes. Examples of the potential uses of chemically modified chitin in <a href="/facts/Food_processing/2vRFfCL9">food processing</a> include the formation of edible films and as an additive to thicken and stabilize foods and food emulsions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Processes to <a href="/facts/Sizing/bwdFfFp2">size</a> and strengthen <a href="/facts/Paper/FUETwwKV">paper</a> employ chitin and chitosan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="research">Research</h2> <p>How chitin interacts with the <a href="/facts/Immune_system/HRCTf1pb">immune system</a> of plants and animals has been an active area of research, including the identity of key <a href="/facts/Receptor_(biochemistry)/tjTAC76a">receptors</a> with which chitin interacts, whether the size of chitin particles is relevant to the kind of immune response triggered, and mechanisms by which immune systems respond.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> Chitin is deacetylated chemically or enzymatically to produce <a href="/facts/Chitosan/BL11EEVL">chitosan</a>, a highly <a href="/facts/Biocompatibility/UbGXs4XW">biocompatible</a> polymer which has found a wide range of applications in the biomedical industry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> Chitin and chitosan have been explored as a <a href="/facts/Vaccine_adjuvant/nMbqU16c">vaccine adjuvant</a> due to its ability to stimulate an immune response.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> </p><p>Chitin and chitosan are under development as <a href="/facts/Tissue_engineering/Tx77KG1S">scaffolds</a> in studies of how tissue grows and how <a href="/facts/Wound_healing/3NlzV5Qn">wounds heal</a>, and in efforts to invent better <a href="/facts/Bandages/ssXaXtkY">bandages</a>, <a href="/facts/Surgical_suture/Pk3D50by">surgical thread</a>, and materials for <a href="/facts/Allotransplantation/WfJs449u">allotransplantation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Surgical_suture/Pk3D50by">Sutures</a> made of chitin have been experimentally developed, but their lack of elasticity and problems making thread have prevented commercial success so far.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Chitosan/BL11EEVL">Chitosan</a> has been demonstrated and proposed to make a reproducible form of <a href="/facts/Biodegradable/d1UW4dfR">biodegradable</a> plastic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> Chitin <a href="/facts/Nanofiber/TyFPW0jN">nanofibers</a> are extracted from crustacean waste and mushrooms for possible development of products in <a href="/facts/Tissue_engineering/Tx77KG1S">tissue engineering</a>, drug delivery and medicine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p><p>Chitin has been proposed for use in building structures, tools, and other solid objects from a <a href="/facts/Composite_material/UBysQldh">composite material</a>, combining chitin with <a href="/facts/Martian_soil/Emd8uS8g">Martian regolith</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> To build this, the <a href="/facts/Biopolymers/GaCwr4EY">biopolymers</a> in the chitin are suggested as the <a href="/facts/Binder_(material)/GBxjQF0U">binder</a> for the regolith <a href="/facts/Aggregate_(composite)/dKfhlNIw">aggregate</a> to form a <a href="/facts/Concrete/K6whGVNx">concrete</a>-like <a href="/facts/Composite_material/UBysQldh">composite material</a>. The authors believe that waste materials from food production (e.g. scales from fish, exoskeletons from crustaceans and insects, etc.) could be put to use as feedstock for manufacturing processes. </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Chitobiose/XSboryjG">Chitobiose</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Lorica_(biology)/P5TQGwt0">Lorica</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sporopollenin/BQtQKBqz">Sporopollenin</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Tectin_(secretion)/ulS3qvQT">Tectin</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li> Media related to Chitin at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li> The dictionary definition of chitin at Wiktionary</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Nelson, D.L., Cox, M.M. (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (7th ed.). McMillan Learning. ISBN 978-1-4641-2611-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="978-1-4641-2611-6" target="_blank">978-1-4641-2611-6</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Sanjanwala, Dhruv; Londhe, Vaishali; Trivedi, Rashmi; Bonde, Smita; Sawarkar, Sujata; Kale, Vinita; Patravale, Vandana (2022-12-02). "Polysaccharide-based hydrogels for drug delivery and wound management: a review". Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery. 19 (12): 1664–1695. doi:10.1080/17425247.2022.2152791. ISSN 1742-5247. PMID 36440488. S2CID 254041961. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17425247.2022.2152791" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17425247.2022.2152791</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Sanjanwala, Dhruv; Londhe, Vaishali; Trivedi, Rashmi; Bonde, Smita; Sawarkar, Sujata; Kale, Vinita; Patravale, Vandana (2024-01-01). "Polysaccharide-based hydrogels for medical devices, implants and tissue engineering: A review". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 256 (Pt 2): 128488. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128488. ISSN 0141-8130. PMID 38043653. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141813023053874" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141813023053874</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Tang, WJ; Fernandez, JG; Sohn, JJ; Amemiya, CT (2015). "Chitin is endogenously produced in vertebrates". Curr Biol. 25 (7): 897–900. Bibcode:2015CBio...25..897T. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.058. PMC 4382437. PMID 25772447. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382437" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382437</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Sanjanwala, Dhruv; Londhe, Vaishali; Trivedi, Rashmi; Bonde, Smita; Sawarkar, Sujata; Kale, Vinita; Patravale, Vandana (2022-12-02). "Polysaccharide-based hydrogels for drug delivery and wound management: a review". Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery. 19 (12): 1664–1695. doi:10.1080/17425247.2022.2152791. ISSN 1742-5247. PMID 36440488. S2CID 254041961. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17425247.2022.2152791" target="_blank">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17425247.2022.2152791</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Sanjanwala, Dhruv; Londhe, Vaishali; Trivedi, Rashmi; Bonde, Smita; Sawarkar, Sujata; Kale, Vinita; Patravale, Vandana (2024-01-01). "Polysaccharide-based hydrogels for medical devices, implants and tissue engineering: A review". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 256 (Pt 2): 128488. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128488. ISSN 0141-8130. PMID 38043653. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141813023053874" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141813023053874</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Sanjanwala, Dhruv; Londhe, Vaishali; Trivedi, Rashmi; Bonde, Smita; Sawarkar, Sujata; Kale, Vinita; Patravale, Vandana (2024-01-01). "Polysaccharide-based hydrogels for medical devices, implants and tissue engineering: A review". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 256 (Pt 2): 128488. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128488. ISSN 0141-8130. PMID 38043653. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141813023053874" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141813023053874</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Morin-Crini, Nadia; Lichtfouse, Eric; Torri, Giangiacomo; Crini, Grégorio (2019-12-01). "Applications of chitosan in food, pharmaceuticals, medicine, cosmetics, agriculture, textiles, pulp and paper, biotechnology, and environmental chemistry". Environmental Chemistry Letters. 17 (4): 1667–1692. Bibcode:2019EnvCL..17.1667M. doi:10.1007/s10311-019-00904-x. ISSN 1610-3661. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-019-00904-x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-019-00904-x</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Odier, Auguste (1823). "Mémoire sur la composition chimique des parties cornées des insectes" [Memoir on the chemical composition of the horny parts of insects]. Mémoires de la Société d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris (in French). 1. presented: 1821: 29–42. la Chitine (c'est ainsi que je nomme cette substance de chiton, χιτον, enveloppe… [chitine (it is thus that I name this substance from chiton, χιτον, covering)]" <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JhhLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA35" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=JhhLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA35</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Hofmann, A. (1929). Über den enzymatischen Abbau des Chitins und Chitosans [On the enzymatic degradation of chitin and chitosan] (Thesis). Zurich, Switzerland: University of Zurich. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Karrer, P.; Hofmann, A. (1929). "Polysaccharide XXXIX. Über den enzymatischen Abbau von Chitin and Chitosan I". 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