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Alice and Bob
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<h2 id="overview">Overview</h2> <p>Alice and Bob are the names of fictional characters used for convenience and to aid comprehension. For example, "How can Bob send a private message M to Alice in a public-key cryptosystem?"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> is believed to be easier to describe and understand than if the hypothetical people were simply named <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> as in "How can B send a private message M to A in a public-key cryptosystem?" </p><p>The names are conventional, and where relevant may use an <a href="/facts/Alliteration/N4ESE135">alliterative</a> <a href="/facts/Mnemonic/6HfDn0ks">mnemonic</a> such as "Mallory" for "malicious" to associate the name with the typical role of that person. </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>Scientific papers about thought experiments with several participants often used letters to identify them: <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, etc. </p><p>The first mention of Alice and Bob in the context of cryptography was in <a href="/facts/Ron_Rivest/nQsIcAKa">Rivest</a>, <a href="/facts/Adi_Shamir/CTnaUeP6">Shamir</a>, and <a href="/facts/Leonard_Adleman/uSGnztdj">Adleman</a>'s 1978 article "A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> They wrote, "For our scenarios we suppose that A and B (also known as Alice and Bob) are two users of a public-key cryptosystem".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a>: 121 Previous to this article, cryptographers typically referred to message senders and receivers as A and B, or other simple symbols. In fact, in the two previous articles by Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman, introducing the <a href="/facts/RSA_(cryptosystem)/XTzyfHuq">RSA cryptosystem</a>, there is no mention of Alice and Bob.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> The choice of the first three names may have come from the film <i><a href="/facts/Bob_%26_Carol_%26_Ted_%26_Alice/5j7V3nIS">Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>Within a few years, however, references to Alice and Bob in cryptological literature became a common <a href="/facts/Trope_(literature)/xwQxCxqx">trope</a>. Cryptographers would often begin their academic papers with reference to Alice and Bob. For instance, <a href="/facts/Michael_O._Rabin/M6NHIb5J">Michael Rabin</a> began his 1981 paper, "Bob and Alice each have a secret, SB and SA, respectively, which they want to exchange."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Early on, Alice and Bob were starting to appear in other domains, such as in <a href="/facts/Manuel_Blum/fl3GKhvh">Manuel Blum</a>'s 1981 article, "Coin Flipping by Telephone: A Protocol for Solving Impossible Problems," which begins, "Alice and Bob want to flip a coin by telephone."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>Although Alice and Bob were invented with no reference to their personality, authors soon began adding colorful descriptions. In 1983, Blum invented a backstory about a troubled relationship between Alice and Bob, writing, "Alice and Bob, recently divorced, mutually distrustful, still do business together. They live on opposite coasts, communicate mainly by telephone, and use their computers to transact business over the telephone."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> In 1984, John Gordon delivered his famous<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> "After Dinner Speech" about Alice and Bob, which he imagines to be the first "definitive biography of Alice and Bob."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p><p>In addition to adding backstories and personalities to Alice and Bob, authors soon added other characters, with their own personalities. The first to be added was Eve, the "eavesdropper." Eve was invented in 1988 by Charles Bennet, Gilles Brassard, and Jean-Marc Robert, in their paper, "Privacy Amplification by Public Discussion."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> In <a href="/facts/Bruce_Schneier/kWxPFPmQ">Bruce Schneier</a>'s book <i>Applied Cryptography</i>, other characters are listed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="cast-of-characters">Cast of characters</h2> <h3>Cryptographic systems</h3> <p>The most common characters are Alice and Bob. Eve, Mallory, and Trent are also common names, and have fairly well-established "personalities" (or functions). The names often use alliterative mnemonics (for example, Eve, "eavesdropper"; Mallory, "malicious") where different players have different motives. Other names are much less common and more flexible in use. Sometimes the genders are alternated: Alice, Bob, Carol, Dave, Eve, etc.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><i>Alice</i> and <i>Bob</i></td><td>The original, generic characters. Generally, Alice and Bob want to exchange a message or cryptographic key.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Carol</i>, <i>Carlos</i> or <i>Charlie</i></td><td>A generic third participant.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Chuck</i> or <i>Chad</i></td><td>A third participant, usually of malicious intent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Craig</i></td><td>A <i><a href="/facts/Password_cracking/cKnFAosH">password cracker</a>,</i> often encountered in situations with stored passwords.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Dan</i>, <i>Dave</i> or <i>David</i></td><td>A generic fourth participant.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Erin</i></td><td>A generic fifth participant, but rarely used, as "E" is usually reserved for Eve.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Eve</i> or <i>Yves</i></td><td>An <i><a href="/facts/Eavesdropping/Rkqmt8I2">eavesdropper</a></i>, who is usually a passive attacker. While they can listen in on messages between Alice and Bob, they cannot modify them. In <a href="/facts/Quantum_cryptography/FPqPdNXT">quantum cryptography</a>, Eve may also represent the <i>environment</i>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Faythe</i></td><td>A <i>trusted <a href="/facts/Adviser/W2XrwhTz">advisor</a></i>, courier or intermediary. Faythe is used infrequently, and is associated with <i>faith</i> and <i>faithfulness</i>. Faythe may be a repository of key service or courier of shared secrets.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Frank</i></td><td>A generic sixth participant.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Grace</i></td><td>A <i>government representative</i>. For example, Grace may try to force Alice or Bob to implement backdoors in their protocols. Grace may also deliberately weaken standards.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Heidi</i></td><td>A <i>mischievous designer</i> for cryptographic standards, but rarely used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Ivan</i></td><td>An <i>issuer</i>, mentioned first by Ian Grigg in the context of <a href="/facts/Ricardian_contract/mXn58kWy">Ricardian contracts</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Judy</i></td><td>A <i>judge</i> who may be called upon to resolve a potential dispute between participants. See <a href="/facts/Judge_Judy/4NVujrMA">Judge Judy</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Mallory</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> or (less commonly) <i>Mallet</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> or <i>Darth</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></td><td>A <i>malicious attacker</i>. Associated with Trudy, an <i>intruder</i>. Unlike the passive Eve, Mallory is an active attacker (often used in <a href="/facts/Man-in-the-middle_attack/dx4cojdz">man-in-the-middle attacks</a>), who can modify messages, substitute messages, or replay old messages. The difficulty of securing a system against a Mallory is much greater than against an Eve.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Michael</i> or <i>Mike</i></td><td>Used as an alternative to the eavesdropper Eve, from <i><a href="/facts/Microphone/7YWGlXCl">microphone</a></i>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Niaj</i></td><td>Used as an alternative to the eavesdropper Eve in several South Asian nations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Olivia</i></td><td>An <i><a href="/facts/Oracle_machine/6ScMuvvY">oracle</a></i>, who responds to queries from other participants. Olivia often acts as a "<a href="/facts/Black_box/hJeAGnIz">black box</a>" with some concealed state or information, or as a <a href="/facts/Random_oracle/wK7MhxDq">random oracle</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Oscar</i></td><td>An <i>opponent</i>, similar to Mallory, but not necessarily malicious.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Peggy</i> or <i>Pat</i></td><td>A <i>prover</i>, who interacts with the <i>verifier</i> to show that the intended transaction has actually taken place. Peggy is often found in <a href="/facts/Zero-knowledge_proof/38soaPT5">zero-knowledge proofs</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Rupert</i></td><td>A <i>repudiator</i> who appears for interactions that desire <a href="/facts/Non-repudiation/uNAP1YIf">non-repudiation</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Sybil</i></td><td>A <i><a href="/facts/Pseudonym/A5EjmWxQ">pseudonymous</a> attacker</i>, who usually uses a large number of identities. For example, Sybil may attempt to subvert a <a href="/facts/Reputation_system/Q5hHMkmz">reputation system</a>. See <a href="/facts/Sybil_attack/fqa8J81a">Sybil attack</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Trent</i> or <i>Ted</i></td><td>A <i>trusted <a href="/facts/Arbitral_tribunal/7uR37PS8">arbitrator</a></i>, who acts as a <a href="/facts/Trusted_third_party/VdPm949G">neutral third party</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Trudy</i></td><td>An <i>intruder</i>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Victor</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> or <i>Vanna</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td><td><i>A verifier</i>, who requires proof from the <i>prover</i>.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Walter</i></td><td>A <i><a href="/facts/Prison_warden/QWsWuN56">warden</a></i>, who may guard Alice and Bob.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Wendy</i></td><td>A <i><a href="/facts/Whistleblower/Ah5QHEW1">whistleblower</a></i>, who is an insider with privileged access capable of divulging information.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Interactive proof systems</h3> <p>For <a href="/facts/Interactive_proof_system/rDB0agR9">interactive proof systems</a> there are other characters: </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><i>Arthur</i> and <i>Merlin</i></td><td>Merlin provides answers, and Arthur asks questions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Merlin has unbounded computational ability (like the wizard <a href="/facts/Merlin_(wizard)/HMBHsp6A">Merlin</a>). In interactive proof systems, Merlin claims the truth of a statement, and Arthur (like <a href="/facts/King_Arthur/JDyRQ8gx">King Arthur</a>), questions him to verify the claim.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Paul</i> and <i>Carole</i></td><td>Paul asks questions, and Carole provides answers. In the solution of the <a href="/facts/Twenty_Questions/p3mIkJ8D">Twenty Questions</a> problem,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Paul (standing in for <a href="/facts/Paul_Erd%C5%91s/63LoUTe1">Paul Erdős</a>) asked questions and Carole (an <a href="/facts/Anagram/T8L7yImr">anagram</a> of "<a href="/facts/Oracle/f8TB6BcQ">oracle</a>") answered them. Paul and Carole were also used in <a href="/facts/Combinatorial_game_theory/fF4l0om2">combinatorial games</a>, in the roles of pusher and chooser.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Arthur</i> and <i>Bertha</i></td><td>Arthur is the "left", "black", or "vertical" player, and Bertha is the "right", "white", or "horizontal" player in a <a href="/facts/Combinatorial_game_theory/fF4l0om2">combinatorial game</a>. Additionally, Arthur, given the same outcome, prefers a game to take the fewest moves, while Bertha prefers a game to take the most moves.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Physics</h3> <p>The names Alice and Bob are often used to name the participants in thought experiments in physics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> More alphabetical names, usually of alternating gender, are used as required, e.g. "Alice and Bob (and Carol and Dick and Eve)".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p><p>In experiments involving robotic systems, the terms "Alice Robot" and "Bob Robot" refer to mobile platforms responsible for transmitting quantum information and receiving it with quantum detectors, respectively, within the context of the field of <a href="/facts/Quantum_robotics/thVI97gB">quantum robotics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Diffie%E2%80%93Hellman_key_exchange/xR4YQcaD">Diffie–Hellman key exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Martin_Gardner/HGfEnPDH">Martin Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Public-key_cryptography/gowoFTxS">Public-key cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Security_protocol_notation/MQqGK5en">Security protocol notation</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://cryptocouple.com/">History of Alice and Bob</a></li> <li><a href="http://people.csail.mit.edu/rivest/Rsapaper.pdf">A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217101831/http://people.csail.mit.edu/rivest/Rsapaper.pdf">Archived</a> December 17, 2008, at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="http://downlode.org/Etext/alicebob.html">The Alice and Bob After-Dinner Speech</a>, given at the Zurich Seminar, April 1984, by John Gordon</li> <li><a href="http://www.catonmat.net/blog/musical-geek-friday-alice-and-bob/">Geek Song: "Alice and Bob"</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060619074924/http://rogers.phy.bris.ac.uk/denzil/denweb4.html">Alice and Bob jokes</a> (mainly <a href="/facts/Quantum_Computing/nbbcgmvq">Quantum Computing</a>-related)</li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070303030954/http://www.networkworld.com/news/2006/103006-bob.html">A short history of Bobs (story and slideshow) in the computing industry, from Alice & Bob to Microsoft Bob and Father of Ethernet Bob Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="https://xkcd.com/177/">XKCD #177: Alice and Bob</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>R. Shirey (August 2007). Internet Security Glossary, Version 2. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC4949. RFC 4949. Informational. <a href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4949" target="_blank">https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4949</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Rivest, Ron L.; Shamir, Adi; Adleman, Len (February 1, 1978). "A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems". Communications of the ACM. 21 (2): 120–126. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.607.2677. doi:10.1145/359340.359342. ISSN 0001-0782. S2CID 2873616. <a href="/wiki/Ron_Rivest" target="_blank">/wiki/Ron_Rivest</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Newton, David E. (1997). Encyclopedia of Cryptography. Santa Barbara California: Instructional Horizons, Inc. p. 10. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Rivest, Ron L.; Shamir, Adi; Adleman, Len (February 1, 1978). "A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems". Communications of the ACM. 21 (2): 120–126. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.607.2677. doi:10.1145/359340.359342. ISSN 0001-0782. S2CID 2873616. <a href="/wiki/Ron_Rivest" target="_blank">/wiki/Ron_Rivest</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Rivest, Ron L.; Shamir, Adi; Adleman, Len (February 1, 1978). "A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems". Communications of the ACM. 21 (2): 120–126. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.607.2677. doi:10.1145/359340.359342. ISSN 0001-0782. S2CID 2873616. <a href="/wiki/Ron_Rivest" target="_blank">/wiki/Ron_Rivest</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Rivest, Ron L.; Shamir, Adi; Adleman, Len (February 1, 1978). "A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems". Communications of the ACM. 21 (2): 120–126. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.607.2677. doi:10.1145/359340.359342. ISSN 0001-0782. S2CID 2873616. <a href="/wiki/Ron_Rivest" target="_blank">/wiki/Ron_Rivest</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Rivest, Ron L.; Shamir, Adi; Adleman, Len (April 1977). On Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems. Cambridge MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. <a href="/wiki/Ron_Rivest" target="_blank">/wiki/Ron_Rivest</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Rivest, Ron L.; Shamir, Adi; Adleman, Len (September 20, 1983) [1977]. Cryptographic Communications System and Method. Cambridge MA. 4405829.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Ron_Rivest" target="_blank">/wiki/Ron_Rivest</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Brown, Bob (February 7, 2005). "Security's inseparable couple: Alice & Bob". NetworkWorld. <a href="https://www.networkworld.com/article/2318241/lan-wan-security-s-inseparable-couple.html" target="_blank">https://www.networkworld.com/article/2318241/lan-wan-security-s-inseparable-couple.html</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Rabin, Michael O. (1981). How to exchange secrets with oblivious transfer. Aiken Computation Lab, Harvard University. Technical Report TR-81. <a href="/wiki/Michael_O._Rabin" target="_blank">/wiki/Michael_O._Rabin</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Blum, Manuel (November 10, 1981). "Coin Flipping by Telephone a Protocol for Solving Impossible Problems". ACM SIGACT News. 15 (1): 23–27. doi:10.1145/1008908.1008911. S2CID 19928725. <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Blum" target="_blank">/wiki/Manuel_Blum</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Blum, Manuel (1983). "How to exchange (Secret) keys". ACM Transactions on Computer Systems. 1 (2): 175–193. doi:10.1145/357360.357368. S2CID 16304470. <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Blum" target="_blank">/wiki/Manuel_Blum</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Cattaneoa, Giuseppe; De Santisa, Alfredo; Ferraro Petrillo, Umberto (April 2008). "Visualization of cryptographic protocols with GRACE". Journal of Visual Languages & Computing. 19 (2): 258–290. doi:10.1016/j.jvlc.2007.05.001. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Gordon, John (April 1984). "The Alice and Bob After Dinner Speech". Zurich. <a href="http://downlode.org/Etext/alicebob.html" target="_blank">http://downlode.org/Etext/alicebob.html</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Bennett, Charles H.; Brassard, Gilles; Robert, Jean-Marc (1988). "Privacy Amplification by Public Discussion". 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