Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
Language death
open-in-new
<h2 id="types">Types</h2> <p>Language death is typically the outcome of <a href="/facts/Language_shift/KdY9f9ov">language shift</a> and may manifest itself in one of the following ways: </p> <ul><li>Gradual language death: the most common way that languages die.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> Generally happens when the people speaking that language interact with speakers of a language of higher prestige. This group of people first becomes bilingual, then with newer generations the level of proficiency decreases, and finally no native speakers exist.</li> <li>Bottom-to-top language death: occurs when the language starts to be used for only religious, literary, ceremonial purposes, but not in casual context. (As in <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> or <a href="/facts/Avestan/0b7tvGQs">Avestan</a>.)</li> <li>Top-to-bottom language death: happens when language shift begins in a high-level environment such as the government, but still continues to be used in casual context.</li> <li>Radical language death: the disappearance of a language when all speakers of the language cease to speak the language because of threats, pressure, persecution, or colonisation. In the case of radical death, language death is very sudden, therefore the speech community skips over the semi-speaker phase where structural changes begin to happen to languages. The languages just disappear.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li> <li>Linguicide (also known as language genocide, physical language death, and biological language death): occurs when all or almost all native speakers of that language die because of natural disasters, wars etc. Linguicide usually refers to forced language loss through assimilation or destruction of the identity of a certain group of people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></li> <li>Language attrition: the loss of proficiency in a language at the individual level</li> <li>Change in the land of a speech community: This occurs when members of a speech community leave their traditional lands or communities and move to towns with different languages. For example, in a small isolated community in New Guinea, the young men of the community move to towns for better economic opportunities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> The movement of people puts the native language in danger because more children become bilingual which makes the language harder to pass down to future generations.</li> <li>Cultural contact and clash: Culture contact and clash affects how the community feels about the native language. Cultural, economic and political contact with communities that speak different languages are factors that may alter a community's attitude towards their own language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></li></ul> <p>The most common process leading to language death is one in which a community of speakers of one <a href="/facts/Language/IRcTok2q">language</a> becomes <a href="/facts/Multilingualism/WgzhSW6h">bilingual</a> with another language, and gradually <a href="/facts/Language_shift/KdY9f9ov">shifts</a> allegiance to the second language until they cease to use their original, <a href="/facts/Heritage_language/2p3cTU4K">heritage language</a>. This is a process of <a href="/facts/Cultural_assimilation/hwrCtR9q">assimilation</a> which may be voluntary or may be forced upon a population. Speakers of some languages, particularly regional or minority languages, may decide to abandon them because of economic or utilitarian reasons, in favor of languages regarded as having greater utility or prestige. </p><p>Languages with a small, geographically isolated population of speakers can die when their speakers are wiped out by <a href="/facts/Genocide/IjkNvg7y">genocide</a>, <a href="/facts/Disease/55eeQlGL">disease</a>, or <a href="/facts/Natural_disaster/cCSK2uH0">natural disaster</a>. </p> <h2 id="definition">Definition</h2> <p>A language is often declared to be dead even before the last native speaker of the language has died. If there are only a few elderly speakers of a language remaining, and they no longer use that language for communication, then the language is effectively dead. A language that has reached such a reduced stage of use is generally considered moribund.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Half of the spoken languages of the world are not being taught to new generations of children.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Once a language is no longer a native language—that is, if no children are being socialized into it as their primary language—the process of transmission is ended and the language itself will not survive past the current generations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>Language death is rarely a sudden event, but a slow process of each generation learning less and less of the language until its use is relegated to the domain of traditional use, such as in poetry and song. Typically the transmission of the language from adults to children becomes more and more restricted, to the final setting that adults speaking the language will raise children who never acquire fluency. One example of this process reaching its conclusion is that of the <a href="/facts/Dalmatian_language/xxNjkMkn">Dalmatian language</a>. </p> <h2 id="consequences-on-grammar">Consequences on grammar</h2> <p>During language loss—sometimes referred to as <i>obsolescence</i> in the linguistic literature—the language that is being lost generally undergoes changes as speakers make their language more similar to the language to which they are shifting. This process of change has been described by Appel (1983) in two categories, though they are not mutually exclusive. Often speakers replace elements of their own language with something from the language they are shifting toward. Also, if their heritage language has an element that the new language does not, speakers may drop it. </p> <ul><li>overgeneralization;</li> <li>undergeneralization;</li> <li>loss of <a href="/facts/Phonological/qWAsvnok">phonological</a> contrasts;</li> <li>variability;</li> <li>changes in <a href="/facts/Word_order/nXtB9Gm2">word order</a>;</li> <li><a href="/facts/Morphology_(linguistics)/fWkzsYE8">morphological</a> loss, such as was seen in <a href="/facts/Scottish_Gaelic/KMI4MmzJ">Scottish Gaelic</a> in East Sutherland, Scotland (Dorian: 1978) as fluent speakers still used the historic plural formation, whereas <a href="/facts/Speaker_types/T6wf1I4o">semi-speakers</a> used simple suffixation or did not include any plural formation at all;</li> <li><a href="/facts/Synthetic_language/oVDpKynV">synthetic</a> <a href="/facts/Morphosyntax/fWkzsYE8">morphosyntax</a> may become increasingly <a href="/facts/Analytic_language/yv6h21yU">analytic</a>;</li> <li><a href="/facts/Syntactic/6PxSV98p">syntactic</a> loss (i.e. <a href="/facts/Lexical_categories/WbQ89MHX">lexical categories</a>, complex constructions);</li> <li><a href="/facts/Relexification/jsuYe31p">relexification</a>;</li> <li>loss of word-formation <a href="/facts/Productivity_(linguistics)/px1fUjDw">productivity</a>;</li> <li>style loss, such as the loss of ritual speech;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Morphological_leveling/EseHhyq7">morphological leveling</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></li> <li>analogical leveling.</li></ul> <h2 id="consequences-for-indigenous-communities">Consequences for indigenous communities</h2> <p>Within <a href="/facts/Indigenous_peoples/zyzBMXBS">Indigenous communities</a>, the death of language has consequences for individuals and the communities as a whole. There have been links made between their health (both physically and mentally) and the death of their traditional language. Language is an important part of their identity and as such is linked to their well-being.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p><p>One study conducted on aboriginal youth suicide rates in <a href="/facts/Canada/cWWFM8oc">Canada</a> found that Indigenous communities in which a majority of members speak the traditional language exhibit low suicide rates while suicide rates were six times higher in groups where less than half of its members communicate in their ancestral language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p>Another study was also conducted on aboriginal peoples in <a href="/facts/Alberta/PjKJFbJY">Alberta</a>, Canada. There was a link found between their traditional language knowledge and the prevalence of diabetes. The greater their knowledge was of their traditional language, the lower the prevalence of diabetes was within their communities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="language-revitalization">Language revitalization</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Language_revitalization/71shdxj2">Language revitalization</a></p> <p>Language revitalization is an attempt to slow or reverse language death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Revitalization programs are ongoing in many languages, and have had varying degrees of success. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language/mF6xSlpA">revival of the Hebrew language</a> in <a href="/facts/Israel/dEe3IcaY">Israel</a> is the only example of a language's acquiring new <a href="/facts/First_language/1yK3tnLb">first language</a> speakers after it became extinct in everyday use for an extended period, being used only as a <a href="/facts/Liturgical_language/557K2NXD">liturgical language</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Even in the case of <a href="/facts/Hebrew_language/hqKCSy9d">Hebrew</a>, there is a theory that argues that "the Hebrew revivalists who wished to speak pure Hebrew failed. The result is a fascinating and multifaceted Israeli language, which is not only multi-layered but also multi-sourced. The revival of a clinically dead language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists' mother tongue(s)."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p><p>Other cases of language revitalization that have seen some degree of success are <a href="/facts/Welsh_language/4Pz8r6yk">Welsh</a>, <a href="/facts/Basque_language/rEMpH97p">Basque</a>, <a href="/facts/Hawaiian_language/SsQuMKm9">Hawaiian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Navajo_language/Us0lrsYt">Navajo</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p><p>Reasons for language revitalization vary: they can include physical danger affecting those whose language is dying, economic danger such as the <a href="/facts/Exploitation_of_natural_resources/YUmAXsEg">exploitation of natural resources</a>, political danger such as <a href="/facts/Genocide/IjkNvg7y">genocide</a>, or cultural danger such as <a href="/facts/Cultural_assimilation/hwrCtR9q">assimilation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> During the past century, it is estimated that more than 2,000 languages have already become extinct. The <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">United Nations</a> (UN) estimates that more than half of the languages spoken today have fewer than 10,000 speakers and that a quarter have fewer than 1,000 speakers; and that, unless there are some efforts to maintain them, over the next hundred years most of these will become extinct.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> These figures are often cited as reasons why language revitalization is necessary to preserve linguistic diversity. Culture and identity are also frequently cited reasons for language revitalization, when a language is perceived as a unique "cultural treasure".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> A community often sees language as a unique part of their culture, connecting them with their ancestors or with the land, making up an essential part of their history and self-image.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p><p>According to <a href="/facts/Ghil%2527ad_Zuckermann/63hhpKLL">Ghil'ad Zuckermann</a>, "language reclamation will become increasingly relevant as people seek to recover their cultural autonomy, empower their spiritual and intellectual sovereignty, and improve wellbeing. There are various ethical, aesthetic, and utilitarian benefits of language revival—for example, historical justice, diversity, and employability, respectively."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="factors-that-prevent-language-death">Factors that prevent language death</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Google/GT9Sugza">Google</a> launched the <a href="/facts/Endangered_Languages_Project/uHIxWzBD">Endangered Languages Project</a> aimed at helping preserve languages that are at risk of extinction. Its goal is to compile up-to-date information about endangered languages and share the latest research about them. </p><p><a href="/facts/Anthropologist/CboLlQq5">Anthropologist</a> Akira Yamamoto has identified nine factors that he believes will help prevent language death:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> <ol><li>There must be a dominant culture that favors linguistic diversity</li> <li>The endangered community must possess an ethnic identity that is strong enough to encourage language preservation</li> <li>The creation and promotion of programs that educate students on the endangered language and culture</li> <li>The creation of school programs that are both bilingual and bicultural</li> <li>For native speakers to receive teacher training</li> <li>The endangered speech community must be completely involved</li> <li>There must be language materials created that are easy to use</li> <li>The language must have written materials that encompass new and traditional content</li> <li>The language must be used in new environments and the areas the language is used (both old and new) must be strengthened.</li></ol> <h2 id="dead-languages">Dead languages</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Extinct_language/ayaLa4DU">Extinct language</a></p> <p>Linguists distinguish between language "death" and the process where a language becomes a "dead language" through normal <a href="/facts/Language_change/ycYsECY0">language change</a>, a linguistic phenomenon analogous to <a href="/facts/Pseudoextinction/Jf4dABNK">pseudoextinction</a>. This happens when a language in the course of its normal development gradually morphs into something that is then recognized as a separate, different language, leaving the old form with no native speakers. Thus, for example, <a href="/facts/Old_English/9rsmQG2a">Old English</a> may be regarded as a "dead language" although it changed and developed into <a href="/facts/Middle_English/dj1wHvwd">Middle English</a>, <a href="/facts/Early_Modern_English/vSza8r03">Early Modern English</a> and <a href="/facts/Modern_English/etWbLYRj">Modern English</a>. Dialects of a language can also die, contributing to the overall language death. For example, the <a href="/facts/Ainu_language/CsYQnHv0">Ainu language</a> is slowly dying: "The UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger lists Hokkaido Ainu as critically endangered with 15 speakers ... and both <a href="/facts/Sakhalin_Ainu_language/ggUQK4hG">Sakhalin</a> and <a href="/facts/Kuril_Ainu/4c3Mh3Du">Kuril Ainu</a> as extinct."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> The language vitality for Ainu has weakened because of Japanese becoming the favoured language for education since the end of the nineteenth century. Education in Japanese heavily impacted the decline in use of the Ainu language because of forced linguistic assimilation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="language-change">Language change</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Language_change/ycYsECY0">Language change</a></p> <p>The process of language change may also involve the splitting up of a language into a family of several <a href="/facts/Daughter_language/2vXmDJ4n">daughter languages</a>, leaving the common parent language "dead". This happened to <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>, which (through <a href="/facts/Vulgar_Latin/uR9BLlE5">Vulgar Latin</a>) eventually developed into the <a href="/facts/Romance_languages/TMK4KHI3">Romance languages</a>, and to <a href="/facts/Sanskrit/ychfjhlx">Sanskrit</a>, which (through <a href="/facts/Prakrit/8X8AUK2y">Prakrit</a>) developed into the <a href="/facts/Indo-Aryan_languages/hm2N7fYp">New Indo-Aryan languages</a>. Such a process is normally not described as "language death", because it involves an unbroken chain of normal transmission of the language from one generation to the next, with only minute changes at every single point in the chain. Thus with regard to Latin, for example, there is no point at which Latin "died"; it evolved in different ways in different geographic areas, and its modern forms are now identified by a plethora of different names such as French, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, etc. Language shift can be used to understand the evolution of Latin into the various modern forms. Language shift, which could lead to language death, occurs because of a shift in language behaviour from a speech community. Contact with other languages and cultures causes change in behaviour to the original language which creates language shift.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="measuring-language-vitality">Measuring language vitality</h2> <p>Except in case of linguicide, languages do not suddenly become extinct; they become moribund as the community of speakers gradually <a href="/facts/Language_shift/KdY9f9ov">shifts</a> to using other languages. As speakers shift, there are discernible, if subtle, changes in language behavior. These changes in behavior lead to a change of linguistic vitality in the community. There are a variety of systems that have been proposed for measuring the vitality of a language in a community. One of the earliest is the GIDS (Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale) proposed by <a href="/facts/Joshua_Fishman/WH19oMxI">Joshua Fishman</a> in 1991.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> A noteworthy publishing milestone in measuring language vitality is an entire issue of <i><a href="/facts/Journal_of_Multilingual_and_Multicultural_Development/M8Qv5Cld">Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development</a></i> devoted to the study of ethnolinguistic vitality, Vol. 32.2, 2011, with several authors presenting their own tools for measuring language vitality. A number of other published works on measuring language vitality have been published, prepared by authors with varying situations and applications in mind. These include works by <a href="/facts/Arienne_Dwyer/v2KQDIJC">Arienne Dwyer</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Martin Ehala,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> M. Lynne Landwehr,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> Mark Karan,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Andr%25C3%25A1s_Kornai/Sz65H1vL">András Kornai</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> and Paul Lewis and Gary Simons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Classical_language/MlEjbYgj">Classical language</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cultural_genocide/3eKj3lQD">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cultural_hegemony/eqsrsfXg">Cultural hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Directorate_of_Language_Planning_and_Implementation/4qg3jlyd">Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Endangered_language/qcw97ryL">Endangered language</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Lists_of_endangered_languages/CnmNx6t0">Lists of endangered languages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ethnocide/MKqJYe2u">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Extinct_language/ayaLa4DU">Extinct language</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Lists_of_extinct_languages/8sCN8trs">Lists of extinct languages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/International_auxiliary_language/zuBmGwtx">International auxiliary language</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Language_contact/xU290Qnk">Language contact</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Language_movement_(disambiguation)/8QPkP7N7">Language movement</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Language_policy/S8M7pngP">Language policy</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Language_revitalization/71shdxj2">Language revitalization</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Language_shift/KdY9f9ov">Language shift</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Lingua_Libre/eCCSURCU">Lingua Libre</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Linguistic_discrimination/WAh0GNDd">Linguistic discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Linguistic_imperialism/mJQjnGvU">Linguistic imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Linguistic_purism/zjL5N8PF">Linguistic purism</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Linguistic_rights/XglcEWeK">Linguistic rights</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/List_of_last_known_speakers_of_languages/eVomK2jY">List of last known speakers of languages</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Minority_language/jN1xCGGb">Minority language</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Native_Tongue_Title/NrYfSHKC">Native Tongue Title</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)/PCApCH33">Prestige language</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Regional_language/SzdzT7pI">Regional language</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rosetta_Project/1j5TPPw9">Rosetta Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/The_Linguists/Emu0PRR4">The Linguists</a></i> (documentary film)</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Abley, Mark. (2003). <i>Spoken here: Travels among threatened languages</i>. London: Heinemann.</li> <li>Aitchinson, Jean. (1991). <i>Language change: progress or decay?</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2007). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071201001352/http://bibliotecavirtualut.suagm.edu/Glossa/Journal/jun2007/Linguistic%20Sustainability%20for%20a%20Multilingual%20Humanity.pdf">"Linguistic sustainability for a multilingual humanity"</a>, Glossa. An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 2, num. 2.</li> <li>Batibo, Herman M. (2005). <i>Language decline and death in Africa: Causes, consequences, and challenges</i>. Multilingual Matters.</li> <li>Brenzinger, Matthias (Ed.). (1992). <i>Language death: Factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa</i>. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.</li> <li>Brenzinger, Matthais (Ed.). (1998). <i>Endangered languages in Africa</i>. Cologne: Rüdiger Köper Verlag.</li> <li>Broderick, George. (1999). <i>Language Death in the Isle of Man</i>. Tübingen: Niemeyer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-484-30395-6.</li> <li>Calvet, Louis-Jean. (1998). <i>Language wars and linguistic politics</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Campbell, Lyle. (1994). Language death. In R. E. Asher (Ed.), <i>The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics</i> (pp. 1960–1968). Oxford: Pergamon Press.</li> <li>Campbell, Lyle; & Muntzel, M. (1989). The structural consequences of language death. In N. C. Dorian (Ed.).</li> <li>Cantoni-Harvey, Gina (Ed.). (1997). <i>Stabilizing indigenous languages</i>. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education.</li> <li>Crystal, David. (2000). <i>Language death</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-65321-5.</li> <li>Crystal, David. (2004). <i>Language revolution</i>. Cambridge: Polity Press.</li> <li>Cyr, Christine. (2008). "<a href="http://www.slate.com/id/2182949/">How Do You Learn a Dead Language?</a>". <i>Slate</i>.</li> <li>Dalby, Andrew. (2003). <i>Language in danger: The loss of linguistic diversity and the threat to our future</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-231-12900-9.</li> <li>Dixon, R. M. W. (1997). <i>The rise and fall of languages</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Nancy_Dorian/1pjBUML1">Dorian, Nancy C.</a> (1973). Grammatical change in a dying dialect. <i>Language</i>, <i>49</i>, 413–438.</li> <li>Dorian, Nancy C. (1978). The fate of morphological complexity in language death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic. <i>Language</i>, <i>54</i> (3), 590–609.</li> <li>Dorian, Nancy C. (1981). <i>Language death: The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</li> <li>Dorian, Nancy C. (Ed.). (1989). <i>Investigating obsolescence: Studies in language contraction and death</i>. Studies in the social and cultural foundations of language (No. 7). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-32405-X.</li> <li>Dressler, Wolfgand & Wodak-Leodolter, Ruth (eds.) (1977) <i>Language death</i> (International Journal of the Sociology of Language vol. 12). The Hague: Mouton.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Joshua_Fishman/WH19oMxI">Fishman, Joshua A.</a> (1991). <i>Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages</i>. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.</li> <li>Grenoble, Lenore A.; & Whaley, Lindsay J. (Eds.). (1998). <i>Endangered languages: Current issues and future prospects</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Hagège, Claude. (1992). <i>Le souffle de la langue</i>. Paris: Odile Jacob.</li> <li>Hagège, Claude. (2000). <i>Halte à la mort des langues</i>. Paris: Editions Odille Jacob.</li> <li>Hale, Ken; Krauss, Michael; Watahomigie, Lucille J.; Yamamoto, Akira Y.; Craig, Colette; Jeanne, LaVerne M. et al. (1992). Endangered languages. <i>Language</i>, <i>68</i> (1), 1–42.</li> <li>Harmon, David. (2002). <i>In light of our differences: How diversity in nature and culture makes us human</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.</li> <li>Harrison, K. David. (2007) When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. New York and London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-19-518192-1.</li> <li>Hazaël-Massieux, Marie-Christine. (1999). <i>Les créoles: L'indispensable survie</i>. Paris: Editions Entente.</li> <li>Hill, Jane. (1983). Language death in Uto-Aztecan. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>49</i>, 258–27.</li> <li>Janse, Mark; & Tol, Sijmen (Eds.). (2003). <i>Language death and language maintenance: Theoretical, practical and descriptive approaches</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-272-4752-8; <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-58811-382-5.</li> <li>Joseph, Brian D. (Ed.). (2003). <i>When languages collide: Perspectives on language conflict, language competition, and language coexistence</i>. Columbus: Ohio State University.</li> <li>Maffi, Lusia (Ed.). (2001). <i>On biocultural diversity: Linking language, knowledge, and the environment</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.</li> <li>Maurais, Jacques; & Morris, Michael A. (Eds.). (2003). <i>Languages in a globalizing world</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Mohan, Peggy; & Zador, Paul. (1986). Discontinuity in a life cycle: The death of Trinidad Bhojpuri. <i>Language</i>, <i>62</i> (2), 291–319.</li> <li>Motamed, Fereydoon; (1974). La métrique diatemporelle: ou des accords de temps revolutifs dans les langues à flexions quantitatives. "<a href="https://archive.org/details/LaMetriqueDiatemporelle">[1]</a>" Open Library OL25631615M.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Salikoko_Mufwene/KqsCfsE8">Mufwene, Salikoko S.</a> (2001). <i>The ecology of language evolution</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Mühlhäusler, Peter. (1996). <i>Linguistic ecology: Language change and linguistic imperialism in the Pacific region</i>. London: Routledge.</li> <li>Nettle, Daniel; & Romaine, Suzanne. (2000). <i>Vanishing voices: The extinction of the world's languages</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-19-513624-1.</li> <li>Phillipson, Robert. (2003). <i>English only?: Challenging language policy</i>. London: Routledge.</li> <li>Reyhner, Jon (Ed.). (1999). <i>Revitalizing indigenous languages</i>. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-9670554-0-7.</li> <li>Robins, R. H.; & Uhlenbeck, E. M. (1991). <i>Endangered languages</i>. Oxford: Berg.</li> <li>Sasse, Hans-Jürgen. (1990). <i>Theory of language death, and, language decay and contact-induced change: Similarities and differences</i>. Arbeitspapier (No. 12). Köln: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, Universität zu Köln.</li> <li>Sasse, Hans-Jürgen. (1992). Theory of language death. In M. Brenzinger (Ed.) (pp. 7–30).</li> <li>Schilling-Estes, Natalie; & Wolfram, Walt. (1999). Alternative models of dialect death: Dissipation vs. concentration. <i>Language</i>, <i>75</i> (3), 486–521.</li> <li>Skutnab-Kangas, Tove. (2000). <i>Linguistic genocide in education—or worldwide diversity and human rights?</i> Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.</li> <li>Slater, Julia. (2010). "<a href="http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/news/feature/Time_takes_its_toll_on_old_Swiss_language.html?cid=28504690">Time Takes Its Toll on Old Swiss Language</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121202052455/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/news/feature/Time_takes_its_toll_on_old_Swiss_language.html?cid=28504690">Archived</a> 2 December 2012 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>" <i>SwissInfo.ch</i>.</li> <li>de Swaan, Abram. (2001). <i>Words of the world: The global language system</i>. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.</li> <li>Thomason, Sarah G. (2001). <i>Language contact: An introduction</i>. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Ghil%2527ad_Zuckermann/63hhpKLL">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a> and Michael Walsh. (2011). <a href="https://adelaide.academia.edu/Zuckermann/Papers/267186/Stop_Revive_Survive_Lessons_from_the_Hebrew_Revival_Applicable_to_the_Reclamation_Maintenance_and_Empowerment_of_Aboriginal_Languages_and_Cultures">'Stop, Revive, Survive: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance, and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures'</a>, <i>Australian Journal of Linguistics</i> Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 111–127.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033114/http://www.fathom.com/feature/122144/">Lost Tongues and the Politics of Language Endangerment</a></li> <li><a href="http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0012/features/mufwene.html">Languages don't kill languages; speakers do</a></li> <li><a href="https://mufwene.uchicago.edu/langenda.pdf">Language endangerment: What have pride & prestige got to do with It?</a> (pdf)</li> <li><a href="https://mufwene.uchicago.edu/publications/languageBirthAndDeath.pdf">Language birth & death</a> (pdf)</li> <li><a href="https://mufwene.uchicago.edu/publications/globalization-killerLanguages.pdf">Globalization & the Myth of Killer Languages: What's Really Going on?</a> (pdf)</li> <li><a href="http://www.linguistic-rights.org/en/">International Symposium on "Linguistic Rights in the World: The current situation"</a>, <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">United Nations</a>, <a href="/facts/Geneva/14gXxjcq">Geneva</a>, 24 April 2008</li> <li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6NqEeA6f18c">CELCE talk: Politics of Language, Politics of Death (by Gerald Roche)</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (6 June 2012). "Stop, revive and survive". The Australian. Archived from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2024. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120607055835/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/opinion/stop-revive-and-survive/story-e6frgcko-1226385194433" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120607055835/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/opinion/stop-revive-and-survive/story-e6frgcko-1226385194433</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Calvet, Louis-Jean (1974). Linguistique et colonialisme: petit traité de glottophagie (in French). Paris: Payot. ISBN 978-2-228-33520-1. <a href="978-2-228-33520-1" target="_blank">978-2-228-33520-1</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Crystal, David (6 November 2014). Language Death. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-43181-2. <a href="978-1-107-43181-2" target="_blank">978-1-107-43181-2</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Byram, Michael; Hu, Adelheid, eds. (26 June 2013). Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1136235535. <a href="978-1136235535" target="_blank">978-1136235535</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Van der Walt, Christa, ed. (1 May 2007). Living Through Languages: An African Tribute to René Dirven. Stellenbosch: SUN PReSS. ISBN 9781920109707. <a href="9781920109707" target="_blank">9781920109707</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Hall, Christopher J.; Smith, Patrick H.; Wicaksono, Rachel (11 May 2015). Mapping Applied Linguistics: A Guide for Students and Practitioners. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1136836237. <a href="978-1136836237" target="_blank">978-1136836237</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"English won't dominate as world language". NBC News. Associated Press. 26 February 2004. Retrieved 13 November 2024. <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4387421" target="_blank">https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4387421</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Bilbo Baggins (16 January 2009). "90% Of World's Languages Extinct In 41 Years". chinaSMACK. Retrieved 29 May 2023. <a href="https://www.chinasmack.com/90-percent-worlds-languages-extinct-in-41-years" target="_blank">https://www.chinasmack.com/90-percent-worlds-languages-extinct-in-41-years</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"Ethnologue". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 5 October 2001. Retrieved 22 March 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011005193846/http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20011005193846/http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Graddol, D. (27 February 2004). "The Future of Language". Science. 303 (5662): 1329–1331. Bibcode:2004Sci...303.1329G. doi:10.1126/science.1096546. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 14988552. S2CID 35904484. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1096546" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1096546</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Dorian, Nancy C. (6 July 1989), Dorian, Nancy C. (ed.), "Preface", Investigating Obsolescence (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. x–xi, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511620997.001, ISBN 978-0-521-32405-2, retrieved 22 July 2022 <a href="978-0-521-32405-2" target="_blank">978-0-521-32405-2</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Brenzinger, Matthias; Heine, Bernd; Sommer, Gabriele (March 1991). "Language Death in Africa". Diogenes. 39 (153): 19–44. doi:10.1177/039219219103915303. ISSN 0392-1921. S2CID 144285294. <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/039219219103915303" target="_blank">http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/039219219103915303</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Zwisler, Joshua James (22 December 2021). "Linguistic genocide or linguicide? A discussion of terminology in forced language loss". Apples: Journal of Applied Language Studies. 15 (2): 43–47. doi:10.47862/apples.103419. ISSN 1457-9863. <a href="https://doi.org/10.47862%2Fapples.103419" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.47862%2Fapples.103419</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Wattimena, Patricia (11 March 2019). "How the History of Linguicide Threatens Indigenous Peoples in Asia Today". Cultural Survival. Retrieved 13 November 2024. <a href="https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/how-history-linguicide-threatens-indigenous-peoples-asia" target="_blank">https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/how-history-linguicide-threatens-indigenous-peoples-asia</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Wurm, Stephen A. (March 1991). "Language Death and Disappearance: Causes and Circumstances". Diogenes. 39 (153): 1–18. doi:10.1177/039219219103915302. ISSN 0392-1921. S2CID 143838613. <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/039219219103915302" target="_blank">http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/039219219103915302</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Wurm, Stephen A. (March 1991). "Language Death and Disappearance: Causes and Circumstances". Diogenes. 39 (153): 1–18. doi:10.1177/039219219103915302. ISSN 0392-1921. S2CID 143838613. <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/039219219103915302" target="_blank">http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/039219219103915302</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Crystal, David (6 November 2014). Language Death. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-43181-2. <a href="978-1-107-43181-2" target="_blank">978-1-107-43181-2</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Crystal, David (6 November 2014). Language Death. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-43181-2. <a href="978-1-107-43181-2" target="_blank">978-1-107-43181-2</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Crystal, David (6 November 2014). Language Death. Cambridge University Press. p. 191. ISBN 9781316124093. <a href="9781316124093" target="_blank">9781316124093</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Knowles-Berry, Susan (Winter 1987). "Linguistic decay in Chontal Mayan: the speech of semi-speakers". Anthropological Linguistics. 29 (4): 332–341. JSTOR 30028108. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Dorian, Nancy C. (September 1978). "Fate of morphological complexity in language death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic". Language. 54 (3): 590–609. doi:10.1353/lan.1978.0024. JSTOR 412788. S2CID 143011686. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Sivak, Leda; Westhead, Seth; Richards, Emmalene; Atkinson, Stephen; Richards, Jenna; Dare, Harold; Zuckermann, Ghil'ad; Gee, Graham; Wright, Michael; Rosen, Alan; Walsh, Michael; Brown, Ngiare; Brown, Alex (15 October 2019). ""Language Breathes Life"-Barngarla Community Perspectives on the Wellbeing Impacts of Reclaiming a Dormant Australian Aboriginal Language". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (20): 3918. doi:10.3390/ijerph16203918. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 6843244. PMID 31618944. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6843244" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6843244</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Hallett, Darcy; Chandler, Michael J.; Lalonde, Christopher E. (1 July 2007). "Aboriginal language knowledge and youth suicide". Cognitive Development. 22 (3): 392–399. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.02.001. ISSN 0885-2014. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S088520140700010X" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S088520140700010X</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Oster, Richard T.; Grier, Angela; Lightning, Rick; Mayan, Maria J.; Toth, Ellen L. (19 October 2014). "Cultural continuity, traditional Indigenous language, and diabetes in Alberta First Nations: a mixed methods study". International Journal for Equity in Health. 13 (1): 92. doi:10.1186/s12939-014-0092-4. ISSN 1475-9276. PMC 4210509. PMID 25326227. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4210509" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4210509</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Pine, Aidan; Turin, Mark (29 March 2017). "Language Revitalization". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.8. ISBN 9780199384655. <a href="9780199384655" target="_blank">9780199384655</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Hinton, Leanne; Hale, Kenneth, eds. (13 June 2013). The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-26172-3. <a href="978-90-04-26172-3" target="_blank">978-90-04-26172-3</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (26 August 2009). "Aboriginal languages deserve revival". The Australian Higher Education. Archived from the original on 23 September 2009. <a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" target="_blank">/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>For Welsh and Hawaiian: Griffiths, James (9 April 2019). "Welsh was saved from extinction. Cantonese might not be so lucky". CNN. Retrieved 18 June 2024.For Basque: "The struggle to preserve regional languages". The Economist. 25 August 2022. Retrieved 18 June 2024.For Hawaiian: Warschauer, Mark; Donaghy, Keola (1997). "Leokī: A Powerful Voice of Hawaiian Language Revitalization" (PDF). Computer Assisted Language Learning. 10 (4): 349–362. doi:10.1080/0958822970100405. Retrieved 17 June 2024. For Navajo: Werito, Vincent (2020). ""Think In Navajo": Reflections from the Field on Reversing Navajo Language Shift in Homes, Schools and Communities" (PDF). Northern Arizona University. <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/09/asia/endangered-languages-welsh-hawaiian-cantonese-intl/index.html" target="_blank">https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/09/asia/endangered-languages-welsh-hawaiian-cantonese-intl/index.html</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Crystal, David. 2010. "Language Planning". In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Third Edition, edited by David Crystal, 382–387. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>"Endangered Languages". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 9 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140409141047/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/endangered-languages/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20140409141047/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/endangered-languages/</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Grenoble, Leonore A.; Whaley, Lindsay J. (2005). Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0521016520. <a href="978-0521016520" target="_blank">978-0521016520</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Tsunoda, Tasaku (6 February 2013). Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization: An Introduction. Berlin: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-089658-9. <a href="978-3-11-089658-9" target="_blank">978-3-11-089658-9</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (6 June 2012). "Stop, revive and survive". The Australian. Archived from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2024. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120607055835/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/opinion/stop-revive-and-survive/story-e6frgcko-1226385194433" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120607055835/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/opinion/stop-revive-and-survive/story-e6frgcko-1226385194433</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Crystal, David (6 November 2014). Language Death. Cambridge University Press. p. 191. ISBN 9781316124093. <a href="9781316124093" target="_blank">9781316124093</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Länsisalmi, Riikka (October 2016). "Northern Voices: Examining Language Attitudes in Recent Surveys on Ainu and Saami". Studia Orientalia Electronica. 117: 429–267. <a href="https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/en/publications/northern-voices-examining-language-attitudes-in-recent-surveys-on" target="_blank">https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/en/publications/northern-voices-examining-language-attitudes-in-recent-surveys-on</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Fukazawa, Mika (5 June 2019). "Ainu language and Ainu speakers". In Heinrich, Patrick; Ohara, Yumiko (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Sociolinguistics (1 ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 3–24. doi:10.4324/9781315213378-1. ISBN 978-1-315-21337-8. S2CID 197996106. Retrieved 29 May 2023. <a href="978-1-315-21337-8" target="_blank">978-1-315-21337-8</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Tahara, Kaori (5 February 2019). "The saga of the Ainu language". UNESCO. Retrieved 12 June 2023. <a href="https://en.unesco.org/courier/numero-especial-octubre-2009/saga-ainu-language" target="_blank">https://en.unesco.org/courier/numero-especial-octubre-2009/saga-ainu-language</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Brenzinger, Matthias; Heine, Bernd; Sommer, Gabriele (March 1991). "Language Death in Africa". Diogenes. 39 (153): 19–44. doi:10.1177/039219219103915303. ISSN 0392-1921. S2CID 144285294. <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/039219219103915303" target="_blank">http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/039219219103915303</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Fishman, Joshua A. (1991). Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-1-85359-121-1. <a href="978-1-85359-121-1" target="_blank">978-1-85359-121-1</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Dwyer, Arienne M. (23–24 October 2009). "Tools and techniques for endangered-language assessment and revitalization" (PDF). Trace Foundation Lecture Series Proceedings: Preprint. New York. Retrieved 22 April 2015. <a href="http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/7109/1/Dwyer2011_AssessRevitalize.pdf" target="_blank">http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/7109/1/Dwyer2011_AssessRevitalize.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Pertot, Susanna; Priestly, Tom; Williams, Colin H. (2009). Rights, Promotion and Integration Issues for Minority Languages in Europe. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-20356-3. <a href="978-0-230-20356-3" target="_blank">978-0-230-20356-3</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Landweer, M. Lynn (22 March 2012). "Methods of language endangerment research: a perspective from Melanesia". International Journal of the Sociology of Language (214): 153–178. doi:10.1515/ijsl-2012-0024. ISSN 1613-3668. <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/ijsl-2012-0024/pdf?srsltid=AfmBOooxy_uekwHN6cPrMHvAqRuDayZjqeLLQG3pIxpJUb3Wo77ciKYd" target="_blank">https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/ijsl-2012-0024/pdf?srsltid=AfmBOooxy_uekwHN6cPrMHvAqRuDayZjqeLLQG3pIxpJUb3Wo77ciKYd</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Karan, Mark E. (March 2011). "Understanding and forecasting Ethnolinguistic Vitality". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 32 (2): 137–149. doi:10.1080/01434632.2010.541916. ISSN 0143-4632. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01434632.2010.541916" target="_blank">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01434632.2010.541916</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Kornai, András (22 October 2013). "Digital Language Death". PLOS ONE. 8 (10): e77056. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...877056K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0077056. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3805564. PMID 24167559. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3805564" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3805564</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F. (April 2010). "Assessing endangerment: Expanding Fishman's GIDS". Revue roumaine de linguistique. 55 (2). <a href="https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/handle/123456789/15355" target="_blank">https://dspace.bcu-iasi.ro/handle/123456789/15355</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>