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Amanita muscaria
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<h2 id="taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2> <p>The name of the <a href="/facts/Mushroom/sRdY6lfe">mushroom</a> in many European languages is thought to derive from its use as an <a href="/facts/Insecticide/1xYL3MSD">insecticide</a> when sprinkled in milk. This practice has been recorded from <a href="/facts/Germanic_languages/BxAJX3Kf">Germanic-</a> and <a href="/facts/Slavic_languages/b5GaeFx1">Slavic-speaking</a> parts of Europe, as well as the <a href="/facts/Vosges_Mountains/FUG7xABL">Vosges</a> region and pockets elsewhere in France, and Romania.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Albertus_Magnus/12FJVrX9">Albertus Magnus</a> was the first to record it in his work <i>De vegetabilibus</i> some time before 1256,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> commenting <i>"vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas"</i> ("it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <p>The 16th-century Flemish botanist <a href="/facts/Carolus_Clusius/SCDkMVKu">Carolus Clusius</a> traced the practice of sprinkling it into milk to <a href="/facts/Frankfurt/Pw4Xj9A4">Frankfurt</a> in Germany,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> while <a href="/facts/Carl_Linnaeus/gy5HWkHS">Carl Linnaeus</a>, the "father of taxonomy", reported it from <a href="/facts/Sm%25C3%25A5land/TMfRLlGy">Småland</a> in southern Sweden, where he had lived as a child.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> He described it in volume two of his <i><a href="/facts/Species_Plantarum/SKwpspkt">Species Plantarum</a></i> in 1753, giving it the name <i>Agaricus muscarius</i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> the <a href="/facts/Specific_name_(botany)/31ckrsXv">specific epithet</a> deriving from <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> <i>musca</i> meaning "fly".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> It gained its current name in 1783, when placed in the genus <i><a href="/facts/Amanita/SeajBxmT">Amanita</a></i> by <a href="/facts/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck/3lxaPmqM">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>, a <a href="/facts/Sanctioned_name/5QHuxsAV">name sanctioned</a> in 1821 by the "father of mycology", Swedish naturalist <a href="/facts/Elias_Magnus_Fries/IspFbsTk">Elias Magnus Fries</a>. The starting date for all the <a href="/facts/Mycota/BHo5DP59">mycota</a> had been set by general agreement as January 1, 1821, the date of Fries's work, and so the full name was then <i>Amanita muscaria</i> (L.:Fr.) <a href="/facts/William_Jackson_Hooker/vFUbLV99">Hook</a>. The 1987 edition of the <a href="/facts/International_Code_of_Botanical_Nomenclature/EbaUF9P5">International Code of Botanical Nomenclature</a> changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi, and names can now be considered valid as far back as May 1, 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus's work.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Hence, Linnaeus and Lamarck are now taken as the namers of <i>Amanita muscaria</i> (L.) Lam.. </p><p>The English mycologist <a href="/facts/John_Ramsbottom_(mycologist)/UavIpmmV">John Ramsbottom</a> reported that <i>Amanita muscaria</i> was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden, and <i>bug agaric</i> was an old alternative name for the species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> French mycologist <a href="/facts/Jean_Baptiste_Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Pierre_Bulliard/lTITdKN8">Pierre Bulliard</a> reported having tried without success to replicate its fly-killing properties in his work <i><i>Histoire des plantes vénéneuses et suspectes de la France</i></i> (1784), and proposed a new binomial name <i>Agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus</i> because of this.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> One compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein (1,3-di(cis-9-octadecenoyl)glycerol), which attracts insects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> It has been hypothesised that the flies intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> An alternative derivation proposes that the term <i>fly-</i> refers not to insects as such but rather the <a href="/facts/Delirium/f1zdzAc5">delirium</a> resulting from consumption of the fungus. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Several regional names appear to be linked with this connotation, meaning the "mad" or "fool's" version of the highly regarded edible mushroom <i><a href="/facts/Amanita_caesarea/wssQIUfs">Amanita caesarea</a></i>. Hence there is <i><i>oriol foll</i></i> "mad oriol" in <a href="/facts/Catalan_language/W2uTbK8Q">Catalan</a>, <i>mujolo folo</i> from <a href="/facts/Toulouse/VLBjLxD8">Toulouse</a>, <i><i>concourlo fouolo</i></i> from the <a href="/facts/Aveyron/y4rxatG0">Aveyron</a> department in Southern France, <i><i>ovolo matto</i></i> from <a href="/facts/Trentino/hjF8gkYG">Trentino</a> in Italy. A local dialect name in <a href="/facts/Fribourg/MSSmmNlf">Fribourg</a> in Switzerland is <i>tsapi de diablhou</i>, which translates as "Devil's hat".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <h3>Classification</h3> <p><i>Amanita muscaria</i> is the <a href="/facts/Type_species/kL03T6V4">type species</a> of the genus. By extension, it is also the type species of <i>Amanita</i> <a href="/facts/Subgenus/csbIQaGC">subgenus</a> <i>Amanita</i>, as well as section <i>Amanita</i> within this subgenus. <i>Amanita</i> subgenus <i>Amanita</i> includes all <i>Amanita</i> with <a href="/facts/Inamyloid/FS7jso3G">inamyloid</a> spores. <i>Amanita</i> <a href="/facts/Section_(botany)/BVwRekvb">section</a> <i>Amanita</i> includes the species with patchy <a href="/facts/Universal_veil/JSTSUY1s">universal veil</a> remnants, including a <a href="/facts/Volva_(mycology)/Ll5fEySA">volva</a> that is reduced to a series of concentric rings, and the veil remnants on the <a href="/facts/Pileus_(mycology)/6d91unJ1">cap</a> to a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a bulbous base.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> <i>Amanita</i> section <i>Amanita</i> consists of <i>A. muscaria</i> and its close relatives, including <i><a href="/facts/Amanita_pantherina/W21jBJd5">A. pantherina</a></i> (the panther cap), <i><a href="/facts/Amanita_gemmata/tAYt45Me">A. gemmata</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Amanita_farinosa/0YEb3Wo9">A. farinosa</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Amanita_xanthocephala/Gr8HvT1K">A. xanthocephala</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Modern fungal taxonomists have classified <i>Amanita muscaria</i> and its allies this way based on gross <a href="/facts/Morphology_(biology)/Nl3B0myy">morphology</a> and spore inamyloidy. Two recent <a href="/facts/Molecular_phylogenetic/FysplHP5">molecular phylogenetic</a> studies have confirmed this classification as natural.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="description">Description</h2> <p>A large, conspicuous <a href="/facts/Mushroom/sRdY6lfe">mushroom</a>, <i>Amanita muscaria</i> is generally common and numerous where it grows, and is often found in groups with <a href="/facts/Basidiocarp/xgaQV94l">basidiocarps</a> in all stages of development. Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like white eggs. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid-shaped warts. These are remnants of the <a href="/facts/Universal_veil/JSTSUY1s">universal veil</a>, a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. Dissecting the mushroom at this stage reveals a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil, which helps identification. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent; they do not change in size, but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area. The cap changes from globose to hemispherical, and finally to plate-like and flat in mature specimens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Fully grown, the bright red <a href="/facts/Pileus_(mycology)/6d91unJ1">cap</a> is usually around 8–20 centimetres (3–8 inches) in diameter, although larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms. </p><p>The free <a href="/facts/Lamella_(mycology)/V18VY7tJ">gills</a> are white, as is the <a href="/facts/Spore_print/WFAfnvuK">spore print</a>. The oval spores measure 9–13 by 6.5–9 <a href="/facts/Micrometre/7eDFxD2L">μm</a>; they do not turn blue with the application of <a href="/facts/Melzer%2527s_reagent/CIR9etS4">iodine</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Stipe_(mycology)/032SVJIw">stipe</a> is white, 5–20 cm (2–8 in) high<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> by 1–2 cm (1⁄2–1 in) wide, and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. At the base is a <a href="/facts/Volva_(mycology)/Ll5fEySA">bulb</a> that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or ruffs. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the <a href="/facts/Partial_veil/Jvmq0yzY">partial veil</a> (which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white <a href="/facts/Annulus_(mycology)/CJzTJSbU">ring</a>. It can be quite wide and flaccid with age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <p>Although very distinctive in appearance, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red mushroom species in the Americas, such as <i><a href="/facts/Armillaria/CSfeMAXt">Armillaria</a></i> cf. <i>mellea</i> and the edible <i><a href="/facts/Amanita_basii/uXEQ7MTw">A. basii</a></i>—a Mexican species similar to <i><a href="/facts/Amanita_caesarea/wssQIUfs">A. caesarea</a></i> of Europe. Poison control centres in the U.S. and Canada have become aware that <i>amarill</i> (Spanish for 'yellow') is a <a href="/facts/Common_name/3KNNezEU">common name</a> for the <i>A. caesarea</i>-like species in Mexico.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> <i>A. caesarea</i> is distinguished by its entirely orange to red cap, which lacks the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric (though these sometimes wash away during heavy rain).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Furthermore, the stem, gills and ring of <i>A. caesarea</i> are bright yellow, not white.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> The volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette (<i><a href="/facts/Amanita_xanthocephala/Gr8HvT1K">Amanita xanthocephala</a></i>), which grows in association with <a href="/facts/Eucalypts/rQaRDI6c">eucalypts</a>. The latter species generally lacks the white warts of <i>A. muscaria</i> and bears no ring.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> Additionally, immature button forms resemble <a href="/facts/Puffball/x3YumTJY">puffballs</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p> <h3>Controversy</h3> <p><i>Amanita muscaria</i> varies considerably in its morphology, and many authorities recognize several subspecies or varieties within the species. In <i>The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy</i>, German mycologist <a href="/facts/Rolf_Singer/pKcuccv4">Rolf Singer</a> listed three subspecies, though without description: <i>A. muscaria</i> ssp. <i>muscaria</i>, <i>A. muscaria</i> ssp. <i>americana</i>, and <i>A. muscaria</i> ssp. <i>flavivolvata</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>However, a 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of <i>A. muscaria</i> by mycologist József Geml and colleagues found three distinct <a href="/facts/Clade/XefyYmWn">clades</a> within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the centre of diversification for this species. The study also looked at four named varieties of the species: var. <i>alba</i>, var. <i>flavivolvata</i>, var. <i>formosa</i> (including var. <i>guessowii</i>), and var. <i>regalis</i> from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are <a href="/facts/Polymorphism_(biology)/lf32kgfV">polymorphisms</a> rather than distinct subspecies or varieties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Further molecular study by Geml and colleagues published in 2008 show that these three genetic groups, plus a fourth associated with oak–hickory–pine forest in the southeastern United States and two more on <a href="/facts/Santa_Cruz_Island/zBcFGxUv">Santa Cruz Island</a> in California, are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species. Thus <i>A. muscaria</i> as it stands currently is, evidently, a <a href="/facts/Cryptic_species_complex/u6qEMdRQ">species complex</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa that are currently regarded as species:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Amanita_breckonii/nyxq8E1a">A. breckonii</a></i> is a buff-capped mushroom associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> and the brown-capped <i><a href="/facts/Amanita_gioiosa/pVd7Lv99">A. gioiosa</a></i> and <i>A. heterochroma</i> from the <a href="/facts/Mediterranean_Basin/azjFD5mW">Mediterranean Basin</a> and from <a href="/facts/Sardinia/7GGJNHCx">Sardinia</a> respectively. Both of these last two are found with <i><a href="/facts/Eucalyptus/Y0BjE3KQ">Eucalyptus</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Cistus/fzDbAzsw">Cistus</a></i> trees, and it is unclear whether they are native or introduced from Australia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p><i>Amanitaceae.org</i> lists four varieties as of May 2019, but says that they will be segregated into their own taxa "in the near future". They are:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Image</th><th>Reference name</th><th>Common name</th><th>Synonym</th><th>Description</th></tr><tr><td></td><th><a href="/facts/Amanita_muscaria_var._muscaria/KNuSd5aC"><i>Amanita muscaria</i> var. <i>muscaria</i></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a></th><td>Euro-Asian fly agaric</td><td></td><td>Bright red fly agaric from northern Europe and Asia. Cap might be orange or yellow due to slow development of the purple pigment. Wide cap with white or yellow warts which are removed by rain.<p>Known to be toxic but used by shamans in northern cultures. Associated predominantly with Birch and diverse conifers in forest.</p></td></tr><tr><td></td><th><i>Amanita muscaria</i> subsp. <i>flavivolvata</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a></th><td>American fly agaric</td><td></td><td>Red, with yellow to yellowish-white warts. It is found from southern Alaska down through the <a href="/facts/Rocky_Mountains/rDc3cU0E">Rocky Mountains</a>, through <a href="/facts/Central_America/CXKgTuxC">Central America</a>, all the way to Andean <a href="/facts/Colombia/nl7r8Q2u">Colombia</a>. Rodham Tulloss uses this name to describe all "typical" <i>A. muscaria</i> from indigenous New World populations.</td></tr><tr><td></td><th><a href="/facts/Amanita_muscaria_var._guessowii/2NU0S13o"><i>Amanita muscaria</i> var. <i>guessowii</i></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a></th><td>American fly agaric (yellow variant)</td><td><a href="/facts/Amanita_muscaria_var._formosa/Bpo8qxXp"><i>Amanita muscaria</i> var. <i>formosa</i></a></td><td>Has a yellow to orange cap, with the centre more orange or perhaps even reddish orange. It is found most commonly in northeastern North America, from <a href="/facts/Newfoundland_and_Labrador/3rdY8zvo">Newfoundland</a> and <a href="/facts/Quebec/4hhNvb4t">Quebec</a> south all the way to the state of <a href="/facts/Tennessee/A3mLY9bu">Tennessee</a>. Some authorities (cf. Jenkins) treat these populations as <i>A. muscaria</i> var. <i>formosa</i>, while others (cf. Tulloss) recognise them as a distinct variety.</td></tr><tr><td></td><th><a href="/facts/Amanita_muscaria_var._inzengae/e27gkqhR"><i>Amanita muscaria</i> var. <i>inzengae</i></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></th><td>Inzenga's fly agaric</td><td></td><td>It has a pale yellow to orange-yellow cap with yellowish warts and stem which may be tan.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="distribution-and-habitat">Distribution and habitat</h2> <p><i>A. muscaria</i> is a <a href="/facts/Cosmopolitan_distribution/bXgocWnV">cosmopolitan</a> mushroom, native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the <a href="/facts/Temperate/6WPypCzC">temperate</a> and <a href="/facts/Boreal_ecosystem/plRphXgt">boreal</a> regions of the Northern Hemisphere,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> including higher elevations of warmer latitudes in regions such as <a href="/facts/Hindu_Kush/Xj1U6Rsj">Hindu Kush</a>, the Mediterranean and also Central America. A recent molecular study proposes that it had an ancestral origin in the <a href="/facts/Siberia/oaCoPEjF">Siberian</a>–<a href="/facts/Beringia/5AHokBkE">Beringian</a> region in the <a href="/facts/Tertiary/Krcz3olj">Tertiary</a> period, before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> The season for fruiting varies in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the <a href="/facts/Pacific_coast/0IfMySPX">Pacific coast</a>. This species is often found in similar locations to <i><a href="/facts/Boletus_edulis/emubJeq5">Boletus edulis</a></i>, and may appear in <a href="/facts/Fairy_ring/QySxzrdr">fairy rings</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> Conveyed with pine seedlings, it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> New Zealand,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> South Africa<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> and South America, where it can be found in the Brazilian states of <a href="/facts/Paran%25C3%25A1_(state)/gztCpNKP">Paraná</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> São Paulo, Minas Gerais, <a href="/facts/Rio_Grande_do_Sul/lXaAF8SU">Rio Grande do Sul</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p> <p><a href="/facts/Ectomycorrhiza/HAgj8brf">Ectomycorrhizal</a>, <i>A. muscaria</i> forms symbiotic relationships with many trees, including <a href="/facts/Pine/HvMa9uc1">pine</a>, <a href="/facts/Oak/1NJJzkzB">oak</a>, <a href="/facts/Spruce/P1jQLaAY">spruce</a>, <a href="/facts/Fir/oC2WPeKn">fir</a>, <a href="/facts/Birch/XG0bl0GF">birch</a>, and <a href="/facts/Cedrus/s8PJyEG2">cedar</a>. Commonly seen under introduced trees,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> <i>A. muscaria</i> is the fungal equivalent of a <a href="/facts/Weed/Dog4Ifol">weed</a> in <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/facts/Tasmania/q3dubPTt">Tasmania</a> and <a href="/facts/Victoria_(Australia)/76P2nqtz">Victoria</a>, forming new associations with southern beech (<i><a href="/facts/Nothofagus/QsjDxQ9a">Nothofagus</a></i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> The species is also invading a rainforest in Australia, where it may be displacing the native species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> It appears to be spreading northwards, with recent reports placing it near <a href="/facts/Port_Macquarie%2c_New_South_Wales/vPB7tCMH">Port Macquarie</a> on the <a href="/facts/New_South_Wales/aW7eJXSS">New South Wales</a> north coast.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> It was recorded under silver birch (<i><a href="/facts/Betula_pendula/xEth6vrV">Betula pendula</a></i>) in <a href="/facts/Manjimup/8wlb5k4R">Manjimup</a>, Western Australia in 2010.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> Although it has apparently not spread to <a href="/facts/Eucalypt/rQaRDI6c">eucalypts</a> in Australia, it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal. Commonly found throughout the great Southern region of western Australia, it is regularly found growing on <i><a href="/facts/Pinus_radiata/RaQ5nXhy">Pinus radiata</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="toxicity">Toxicity</h2> <p><i>A. muscaria</i> poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested the mushrooms for a <a href="/facts/Hallucinogenic/gn35weCu">hallucinogenic</a> experience,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> or who confused it with an edible species. </p><p><i>A. muscaria</i> contains several biologically active agents, at least one of which, <a href="/facts/Muscimol/B0vIWlcv">muscimol</a>, is known to be <a href="/facts/Psychoactive/dNXrUmsx">psychoactive</a>. <a href="/facts/Ibotenic_acid/QPa9w0H8">Ibotenic acid</a>, a <a href="/facts/Neurotoxin/I7nLuFE7">neurotoxin</a>, serves as a <a href="/facts/Prodrug/cg0GNhH0">prodrug</a> to muscimol, with a small amount likely converting to muscimol after ingestion. An active dose in adults is approximately 6 mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> this is typically about the amount found in one cap of <i>Amanita muscaria</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season, which can further confuse the issue. Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p><p>Deaths from <i>A. muscaria</i> have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> but with modern medical treatment, fatal poisoning from ingesting this mushroom is extremely rare.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> Many books list <i>A. muscaria</i> as deadly,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> but according to <a href="/facts/David_Arora/Iwu9RXPl">David Arora</a>, this is an error that implies the mushroom is far more toxic than it is.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> Furthermore, The <a href="/facts/North_American_Mycological_Association/z0S71CFk">North American Mycological Association</a> has stated that there were "no reliably documented cases of death from toxins in these mushrooms in the past 100 years".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> </p><p>The active constituents of this species are water-soluble, and boiling and then discarding the cooking water at least partly detoxifies <i>A. muscaria</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> Drying may increase potency, as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> Patrick Harding describes the Sami custom of processing the fly agaric through reindeer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> </p> <h3>Pharmacology</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Muscarine/9Sow1p3P">Muscarine</a>, discovered in 1869,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in <i>A. muscaria</i>. Muscarine binds with <a href="/facts/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor/caIdoqrW">muscarinic acetylcholine receptors</a> leading to the excitation of neurons bearing these receptors. The levels of muscarine in <i>Amanita muscaria</i> are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> such as <i><a href="/facts/Inosperma_erubescens/SyMEPkcj">Inosperma erubescens</a></i>, the small white <i><a href="/facts/Clitocybe/worLn88m">Clitocybe</a></i> species <i><a href="/facts/Clitocybe_dealbata/BBP4PoTn">C. dealbata</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Clitocybe_rivulosa/IWDYU9Bj">C. rivulosa</a></i>. The level of muscarine in <i>A. muscaria</i> is too low to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> </p><p>The major toxins involved in <i>A. muscaria</i> poisoning are <a href="/facts/Muscimol/B0vIWlcv">muscimol</a> (3-hydroxy-5-aminomethyl-1-isoxazole, an <a href="/facts/Unsaturated_compound/tde2C216">unsaturated</a> cyclic <a href="/facts/Hydroxamic_acid/583CeDjJ">hydroxamic acid</a>) and the related amino acid <a href="/facts/Ibotenic_acid/QPa9w0H8">ibotenic acid</a>. Muscimol is the product of the <a href="/facts/Decarboxylation/Uugc18fz">decarboxylation</a> (usually by drying) of ibotenic acid. Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid-20th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> Researchers in England,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> Japan,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> and Switzerland<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol, not muscarine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> These toxins are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom. Most are detected in the cap of the fruit, a moderate amount in the base, with the smallest amount in the stalk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> Quite rapidly, between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion, a substantial fraction of ibotenic acid is excreted unmetabolised in the urine of the consumer. Almost no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten, but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating <i>A. muscaria</i>, which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> </p><p>Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major <a href="/facts/Neurotransmitter/LlpYFSU3">neurotransmitters</a> of the central nervous system: <a href="/facts/Glutamic_acid/7oXbNcvu">glutamic acid</a> and <a href="/facts/GABA/vRTeQQUG">GABA</a> respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters, muscimol being a potent <a href="/facts/GABA_A_receptor/6G4rAGb3">GABAA</a> <a href="/facts/Agonist/nz8U5NNp">agonist</a>, while ibotenic acid is an agonist of <a href="/facts/NMDA_receptor/BqMhXEbU">NMDA glutamate receptors</a> and certain <a href="/facts/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor/01pA40Kg">metabotropic glutamate receptors</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> which are involved in the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Muscazone/JoufXf29">Muscazone</a> is another compound that has more recently been isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by <a href="/facts/Ultraviolet_radiation/kncBUqn5">ultraviolet radiation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> Muscazone is of minor <a href="/facts/Biological_activity/jJ14jyvc">pharmacological activity</a> compared with the other agents.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> <i>Amanita muscaria</i> and related species are known as effective <a href="/facts/Bioaccumulation/KaHzFKnL">bioaccumulators</a> of <a href="/facts/Vanadium/UvKkKTSm">vanadium</a>; some species concentrate vanadium to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> Vanadium is present in fruit-bodies as an <a href="/facts/Organometallic_chemistry/bhqFz2P0">organometallic</a> compound called <a href="/facts/Amavadine/9gUENXN5">amavadine</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> The biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> </p> <h3>Symptoms</h3> <p>Fly agarics are best known for the unpredictability of their effects. Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight, effects can range from mild <a href="/facts/Nausea/dyhkcbeD">nausea</a> and twitching to drowsiness, <a href="/facts/Cholinergic_crisis/qrU12UpP">cholinergic crisis</a>-like effects (low <a href="/facts/Blood_pressure/VtqqSM2J">blood pressure</a>, <a href="/facts/Sweat/c5zARtaT">sweating</a> and <a href="/facts/Saliva/gK4nvayc">salivation</a>), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, <a href="/facts/Euphoria_(emotion)/u4cnbWC4">euphoria</a>, relaxation, <a href="/facts/Ataxia/suENWGS6">ataxia</a>, and <a href="/facts/Vertigo_(medical)/2RDjIkuh">loss of equilibrium</a> (like with <a href="/facts/Tetanus/1vukLxUU">tetanus</a>.)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> </p><p>In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes <a href="/facts/Delirium/f1zdzAc5">delirium</a>, somewhat similar in effect to <a href="/facts/Anticholinergic/9mDjo23r">anticholinergic</a> poisoning (such as that caused by <i><a href="/facts/Datura_stramonium/N0RtGKrF">Datura stramonium</a></i>), characterised by bouts of marked <a href="/facts/Psychomotor_agitation/n1vWk6RD">agitation</a> with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods of <a href="/facts/Central_nervous_system/k8I6To97">central nervous system</a> depression. <a href="/facts/Seizures/zuIrQyze">Seizures</a> and <a href="/facts/Coma/N9oQ7g7R">coma</a> may also occur in severe poisonings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for several days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24 hours.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> The effect is highly variable between individuals, with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> Some people suffering intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Retrograde_amnesia/XlQbLNXd">Retrograde amnesia</a> and <a href="/facts/Somnolence/mIlFhyf0">somnolence</a> can result following recovery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> </p> <h3>Treatment</h3><p> Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning. If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours, <a href="/facts/Activated_charcoal/YAbaXCcb">activated charcoal</a> is given. <a href="/facts/Gastric_lavage/8D63n9Uy">Gastric lavage</a> can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a> Inducing vomiting with <a href="/facts/Syrup_of_ipecac/8D5FbwvR">syrup of ipecac</a> is no longer recommended in any poisoning situation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a></p> <p>There is no antidote, and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication. Though sometimes referred to as a <a href="/facts/Deliriant/QVjeDyda">deliriant</a> and while muscarine was first isolated from <i>A. muscaria</i> and as such is its namesake, <a href="/facts/Muscimol/B0vIWlcv">muscimol</a> does not have action, either as an <a href="/facts/Agonist/nz8U5NNp">agonist</a> or <a href="/facts/Receptor_antagonist/PuXHVNdV">antagonist</a>, at the <a href="/facts/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor/caIdoqrW">muscarinic acetylcholine receptor</a> site, and therefore <a href="/facts/Atropine/cJQ0gL4o">atropine</a> or <a href="/facts/Physostigmine/wgYhxpcV">physostigmine</a> as an antidote is not recommended.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> If a patient is <a href="/facts/Delirium/f1zdzAc5">delirious</a> or agitated, this can usually be treated by reassurance and, if necessary, physical restraints. A <a href="/facts/Benzodiazepine/IgbJr4jy">benzodiazepine</a> such as <a href="/facts/Diazepam/h7lIGqkM">diazepam</a> or <a href="/facts/Lorazepam/59gNSrMN">lorazepam</a> can be used to control combativeness, agitation, muscular overactivity, and seizures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> Only small doses should be used, as they may worsen the <a href="/facts/Respiratory_depression/ruqIr4oa">respiratory depressant</a> effects of muscimol.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a> Recurrent vomiting is rare, but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances; intravenous rehydration or electrolyte replacement may be required.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a> Serious cases may develop loss of <a href="/facts/Consciousness/IAxmgt6c">consciousness</a> or <a href="/facts/Coma/N9oQ7g7R">coma</a>, and may need <a href="/facts/Intubation/R8ltvGLT">intubation</a> and <a href="/facts/Artificial_ventilation/Es8LzXWT">artificial ventilation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Hemodialysis/oB7fIKP7">Hemodialysis</a> can remove the toxins, although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="uses">Uses</h2> <h3>Psychoactive</h3> <p>The wide range of <a href="/facts/Psychoactive_drug/dNXrUmsx">psychoactive</a> effects have been variously described as <a href="/facts/Depressant/T5A9pvLB">depressant</a>, <a href="/facts/Sedative/JWzvq66P">sedative</a>-<a href="/facts/Hypnotic/0SBVYkMe">hypnotic</a>, <a href="/facts/Psychedelic_drug/aj9GNANW">psychedelic</a>, <a href="/facts/Dissociative/5aaD39vM">dissociative</a>, or <a href="/facts/Deliriant/QVjeDyda">deliriant</a>; <a href="/facts/Paradoxical_reaction/nJFHqkSz">paradoxical effects</a> such as <a href="/facts/Stimulant/nmBdAXM5">stimulation</a> may occur however. Perceptual phenomena such as <a href="/facts/Synesthesia/dgENETlp">synesthesia</a>, <a href="/facts/Macropsia/5wMY5yxB">macropsia</a>, and <a href="/facts/Micropsia/dHaoUBds">micropsia</a> may occur; the latter two effects may occur either simultaneously or alternatingly, as part of <a href="/facts/Alice_in_Wonderland_syndrome/9M3y6QSY">Alice in Wonderland syndrome</a>, collectively known as dysmetropsia, along with related distortions <a href="/facts/Pelopsia/XhISgMRY">pelopsia</a> and <a href="/facts/Teleopsia/KIpjLlyv">teleopsia</a>. Some users report <a href="/facts/Lucid_dream/gBM42ISY">lucid dreaming</a> under the influence of its hypnotic effects. Unlike <i><a href="/facts/Psilocybe_cubensis/6e1Y6Hau">Psilocybe cubensis</a></i>, <i>A. muscaria</i> cannot be commercially <a href="/facts/Fungiculture/YWQVB7VL">cultivated</a>, due to its <a href="/facts/Mycorrhiza/bAqxvRwm">mycorrhizal</a> relationship with the roots of <a href="/facts/Pine/HvMa9uc1">pine</a> trees. However, following the outlawing of <a href="/facts/Psilocybin_mushroom/tJ29VHJY">psilocybin mushrooms</a> in the United Kingdom in 2006, the sale of the still legal <i>A. muscaria</i> began increasing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Marija_Gimbutas/ltT2brqS">Marija Gimbutas</a> reported to <a href="/facts/R._Gordon_Wasson/4x3TlDD9">R. Gordon Wasson</a> that in remote areas of <a href="/facts/Lithuania/dApVjLWW">Lithuania</a>, <i>A. muscaria</i> has been consumed at <a href="/facts/Wedding_feast/qbJLR899">wedding feasts</a>, in which mushrooms were mixed with <a href="/facts/Vodka/49G9hEo8">vodka</a>. She also reported that the Lithuanians used to export <i>A. muscaria</i> to the <a href="/facts/Sami_people/cJ9QesTc">Sami</a> in the Far North for use in <a href="/facts/Shamanic/Kq60HV3J">shamanic</a> rituals. The Lithuanian festivities are the only report that Wasson received of ingestion of fly agaric for religious use in Eastern Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a> </p> <h4>Siberia</h4> <p><i>A. muscaria</i> was widely used as an <a href="/facts/Entheogen/6boCAmyy">entheogen</a> by many of the <a href="/facts/Indigenous_peoples_of_Siberia/YxT6TT5Y">indigenous peoples of Siberia</a>. Its use was known among almost all of the <a href="/facts/Uralic_languages/4K0r9XRI">Uralic</a>-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the <a href="/facts/Paleosiberian/sABl1SQ2">Paleosiberian</a>-speaking peoples of the <a href="/facts/Russian_Far_East/BT7sYGTP">Russian Far East</a>. There are only isolated reports of <i>A. muscaria</i> use among the <a href="/facts/Tungusic_peoples/C6CcnGM2">Tungusic</a> and <a href="/facts/Turkic_peoples/ocd7rpI3">Turkic peoples</a> of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of <i>A. muscaria</i> was not practised by these peoples.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a> In western Siberia, the use of <i>A. muscaria</i> was restricted to shamans, who used it as an alternative method of achieving a <a href="/facts/Trance/sUDcsJCp">trance</a> state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve trance by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, <i>A. muscaria</i> was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a> In eastern Siberia, the <a href="/facts/Shamanism/Kq60HV3J">shaman</a> would take the mushrooms, and others would drink his urine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a> This urine, still containing psychoactive elements, may be more potent than the <i>A. muscaria</i> mushrooms with fewer negative effects such as sweating and twitching, suggesting that the initial user may act as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Koryaks/eR7RvEa7">Koryak</a> of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric (<i>wapaq</i>) which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity <i>Vahiyinin</i> ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his <a href="/facts/Spittle/RUzb41Ct">spittle</a> became the <i>wapaq</i>, and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the <i>wapaq</i>, Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, could learn from it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a> Among the <a href="/facts/Koryaks/eR7RvEa7">Koryaks</a>, one report said that the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy, who could afford to buy the mushrooms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a> It was reported that the local reindeer would often follow an individual intoxicated by the muscimol mushroom, and if said individual were to urinate in snow the reindeer would become similarly intoxicated and the <a href="/facts/Koryaks/eR7RvEa7">Koryak</a> people's would use the drunken state of the reindeer to more easily rope and hunt them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a> </p> <h4>Recent rise in popularity</h4> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Mushroom_edible/vF5sQHpB">Mushroom edible</a></p> <p>As a result of a lack of regulation, the use of <i>Amanita muscaria</i> as a popular legal alternative to <a href="/facts/Hallucinogen/gn35weCu">hallucinogens</a> has grown exponentially in recent years. In 2024, <a href="/facts/Google_Trends/IE3oLW8l">Google</a> searches for Amanita muscaria rose nearly 200% from the previous year, a trend that an article published in the <a href="/facts/American_Journal_of_Preventive_Medicine/4PgDmurn">American Journal of Preventative Medicine</a> correlated with the sudden commercialization of <i>Amanita muscaria</i> products on the internet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a> </p><p>While Amanita mushrooms are unscheduled in the United States, they are listed as a poison by the FDA.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a> Amanita mushrooms and muscimol are not approved as an ingredient in food,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a> with some drawing comparisons to the controversial legal status of <a href="/facts/Agriculture_Improvement_Act_of_2018/fubXNrqp">hemp-derived cannabinoids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136"><sup>136</sup></a> The FDA is currently evaluating the use of <i>Amanita muscaria</i> and its constituents in dietary supplements, reminding manufacturers to ensure their ingredients meet safety standards and encouraging them to consult the Office of Dietary Supplement Programs with any questions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137"><sup>137</sup></a> </p><p>A recent outbreak of poisonings and at least one death associated with products containing <i>Amanita muscaria</i> extracts has sparked debates regarding the <a href="/facts/Drug_prohibition/FBKxqqnb">regulatory status</a> of Amanita mushrooms and their psychoactive constituents, prompting an FDA ban of their use in food products in December 2024.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138"><sup>138</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139"><sup>139</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140"><sup>140</sup></a> These products often use misleading advertising, such as erroneous comparisons to <a href="/facts/Psilocybin_mushroom/tJ29VHJY">Psilocybin mushrooms</a> or simply not disclosing the inclusion of Amanita mushrooms on the packaging.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141"><sup>141</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142"><sup>142</sup></a> </p> <h4>Other reports and theories</h4> <p>The Finnish historian <a href="/facts/T._I._Itkonen/CzIrJr4m">T. I. Itkonen</a> mentions that <i>A. muscaria</i> was once used among the <a href="/facts/S%25C3%25A1mi_peoples/cJ9QesTc">Sámi peoples</a>. Sorcerers in <a href="/facts/Inari%2c_Finland/yA3XBEpU">Inari</a> would consume fly agarics with seven spots.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143"><sup>143</sup></a> In 1979, Said Gholam Mochtar and <a href="/facts/Hartmut_Geerken/yjz6S8Vf">Hartmut Geerken</a> published an article in which they claimed to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use of this mushroom among a <a href="/facts/Parachi/9pLNk5fa">Parachi</a>-speaking group in <a href="/facts/Afghanistan/v63Auu1C">Afghanistan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144"><sup>144</sup></a> There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of <i>A. muscaria</i> among two Subarctic <a href="/facts/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas/LG2r6wXm">Native American</a> tribes. <a href="/facts/Ojibwa/XJWRD3dN">Ojibwa</a> ethnobotanist <a href="/facts/Keewaydinoquay_Peschel/Bev9FQ3d">Keewaydinoquay Peschel</a> reported its use among her people, where it was known as <i>miskwedo</i> (an abbreviation of the name <i>oshtimisk wajashkwedo</i> (= "red-top mushroom").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145"><sup>145</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146"><sup>146</sup></a> This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson, although evidence from other sources was lacking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147"><sup>147</sup></a> There is also one account of a Euro-American who claims to have been initiated into traditional <a href="/facts/Tlicho/4E1lAnxE">Tlicho</a> use of <i>Amanita muscaria</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148"><sup>148</sup></a> </p><p>Mycophilosopher Martijn Benders has proposed a novel evolutionary theory involving <i>Amanita muscaria</i>. In his book <i>Amanita Muscaria – the Book of the Empress</i>, Benders argues that a precursor of ibotenic acid, a compound found in the mushroom, was present in ancient seaweed and played a significant role in the evolution of life. According to this hypothesis, the compound influenced the twitching movements of early aquatic organisms, leading to the development of behaviors such as jumping onto land—a crucial step in the evolution of terrestrial species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149"><sup>149</sup></a> </p><p> The flying <a href="/facts/Reindeer/LXSh8svy">reindeer</a> of <a href="/facts/Santa_Claus/9hg3kDdD">Santa Claus</a>, who is called <a href="/facts/Joulupukki/fFwxyxGI">Joulupukki</a> in <a href="/facts/Finland/G5Ak6T91">Finland</a>, could symbolize the use of <i>A. muscaria</i> by Sámi shamans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150"><sup>150</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151"><sup>151</sup></a>[111] However, Sámi scholars and the Sámi peoples themselves refute any connection between Santa Claus and Sámi history or culture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152"><sup>152</sup></a></p><blockquote><p>"The story of Santa emerging from a Sámi shamanic tradition has a critical number of flaws," asserts Tim Frandy, assistant professor of Nordic Studies at the University of British Columbia and a member of the Sámi descendent community in North America. "The theory has been widely criticized by Sámi people as a stereotypical and problematic romanticized misreading of actual Sámi culture."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153"><sup>153</sup></a></p></blockquote> <h5>Vikings</h5> <p>The notion that <a href="/facts/Viking/d0WFeQ6f">Vikings</a> used <i>A. muscaria</i> to produce their <a href="/facts/Berserker/XEkRhR1g">berserker</a> rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödmann in 1784.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154"><sup>154</sup></a> Ödmann based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among <a href="/facts/Shamanism_in_Siberia/GtAteNCu">Siberian shamans</a>. The notion has become widespread since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers. Muscimol is generally a mild relaxant, but it can create a range of different reactions within a group of people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155"><sup>155</sup></a> It is possible that it could make a person angry, or cause them to be "very jolly or sad, jump about, dance, sing or give way to great fright".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156"><sup>156</sup></a> Comparative analysis of symptoms have, however, since shown <i><a href="/facts/Hyoscyamus_niger/sy4Negv7">Hyoscyamus niger</a></i> to be a better fit to the state that characterises the berserker rage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157"><sup>157</sup></a> </p> <h5>Soma</h5> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Botanical_identity_of_Soma-Haoma/JEyfzF7N">Botanical identity of Soma-Haoma</a></p> <p>In 1968, <a href="/facts/R._Gordon_Wasson/4x3TlDD9">R. Gordon Wasson</a> proposed that <i>A. muscaria</i> was the <i><a href="/facts/Soma_(drink)/z3H3Uy1X">soma</a></i> talked about in the <a href="/facts/Rigveda/7dyqIlsJ">Rigveda</a> of India,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158"><sup>158</sup></a> a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159"><sup>159</sup></a> He noted that descriptions of <i>Soma</i> omitted any description of roots, stems or seeds, which suggested a mushroom,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160"><sup>160</sup></a> and used the adjective <i>hári</i> "dazzling" or "flaming" which the author interprets as meaning red.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161"><sup>161</sup></a> One line described men urinating <i>Soma</i>; this recalled the practice of recycling urine in Siberia. Soma is mentioned as coming "from the mountains", which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the Aryan migrants from the north.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162"><sup>162</sup></a> Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed, using as a source the <i><a href="/facts/Manusm%25E1%25B9%259Bti/kpMFsXkA">Manusmṛti</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163"><sup>163</sup></a> In 1971, Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164"><sup>164</sup></a> In his 1976 survey, <i>Hallucinogens and Culture</i>, anthropologist Peter T. Furst evaluated the evidence for and against the identification of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma, concluding cautiously in its favour.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165"><sup>165</sup></a> Kevin Feeney and Trent Austin compared the references in the Vedas with the filtering mechanisms in the preparation of Amanita muscaria and published findings supporting the proposal that fly-agaric mushrooms could be a likely candidate for the sacrament.[111] Other proposed candidates include <i><a href="/facts/Psilocybe_cubensis/6e1Y6Hau">Psilocybe cubensis</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Peganum_harmala/sqJR8DMF">Peganum harmala</a></i>,[124] and <i><a href="/facts/Ephedra_(genus)/P4QTfalE">Ephedra</a>.</i> </p> <h5>Christianity</h5> <p>Philologist, archaeologist, and <a href="/facts/Dead_Sea_Scrolls/vlbHRrJm">Dead Sea Scrolls</a> scholar <a href="/facts/John_Marco_Allegro/1MY7Az5x">John Marco Allegro</a> postulated that early Christian <a href="/facts/Theology/N71Fyw2M">theology</a> was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the <a href="/facts/Entheogen/6boCAmyy">entheogenic</a> consumption of <i>A. muscaria</i> in his 1970 book <i><a href="/facts/The_Sacred_Mushroom_and_the_Cross/QVEFE1d1">The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross</a>.</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166"><sup>166</sup></a> This theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of <a href="/facts/Ethnomycology/qey8D3ro">ethnomycology</a>. The book was widely criticized by academics and theologians, including <a href="/facts/Godfrey_Rolles_Driver/EWMTmT9U">Sir Godfrey Driver</a>, emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at <a href="/facts/Oxford_University/ExVVQL6V">Oxford University</a> and <a href="/facts/Henry_Chadwick_(theologian)/D4jJw0Cr">Henry Chadwick</a>, the Dean of <a href="/facts/Christ_Church%2c_Oxford/2NYXMk3T">Christ Church, Oxford</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167"><sup>167</sup></a> Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro's theory in the 1970 book <i>A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth</i>; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the <a href="/facts/Middle_East/8CD6pLWv">Middle East</a>, even though cedars and pines are found there, and highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro. He concludes that if the theory were true, the use of the mushroom must have been "the best kept secret in the world" as it was so well concealed for two thousand years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168"><sup>168</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169"><sup>169</sup></a> </p> <h3>Fly trap</h3> <p><i>Amanita muscaria</i> is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of <a href="/facts/Ibotenic_acid/QPa9w0H8">ibotenic acid</a> and <a href="/facts/Muscimol/B0vIWlcv">muscimol</a>, which lead to its common name "fly agaric". Recently, an analysis of nine different methods for preparing <i>A. muscaria</i> for catching flies in <a href="/facts/Slovenia/EcYU22W4">Slovenia</a> have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did not depend on the solvent (milk or water) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of ibotenic acid and muscimol.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170"><sup>170</sup></a> </p> <h3>Culinary</h3> <p>The toxins in <i>A. muscaria</i> are water-soluble: parboiling <i>A. muscaria</i> fruit bodies can detoxify them and render them edible,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171"><sup>171</sup></a> although consumption of the mushroom as a food has never been widespread.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172"><sup>172</sup></a> The consumption of detoxified <i>A. muscaria</i> has been practiced in some parts of Europe (notably by Russian settlers in Siberia) since at least the 19th century, and likely earlier. The German physician and naturalist <a href="/facts/Georg_Heinrich_von_Langsdorff/q3fdPbHe">Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff</a> wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823. In the late 19th century, the French physician <a href="/facts/F%25C3%25A9lix_Archim%25C3%25A8de_Pouchet/lDfgc4Pe">Félix Archimède Pouchet</a> was a populariser and advocate of <i>A. muscaria</i> consumption, comparing it to <a href="/facts/Manioc/KvjKQDkV">manioc</a>, an important food source in tropical South America that must also be detoxified before consumption.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173"><sup>173</sup></a> </p><p>Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America. A classic description of this use of <i>A. muscaria</i> by an <a href="/facts/African-American/pTgcAdo8">African-American</a> mushroom seller in Washington, D.C., in the late 19th century is described by American botanist <a href="/facts/Frederick_Vernon_Coville/D42gQ4l3">Frederick Vernon Coville</a>. In this case, the mushroom, after parboiling, and soaking in vinegar, is made into a mushroom sauce for steak.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174"><sup>174</sup></a> It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan. The most well-known current use as an edible mushroom is in <a href="/facts/Nagano_Prefecture/S5lbg8hC">Nagano Prefecture</a>, Japan. There, it is primarily salted and pickled.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175"><sup>175</sup></a> </p><p>A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of <i>A. muscaria</i> as a food and describes detoxification methods. They advocate that <i>Amanita muscaria</i> be described in field guides as an edible mushroom, though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it. The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of <a href="/facts/Cultural_bias/BeTv4b6h">cultural bias</a>, as several other popular edible species, notably <a href="/facts/Morels/4AccCGdR">morels</a>, are also toxic unless properly cooked.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176"><sup>176</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="in-culture">In culture</h2> <p>The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177"><sup>177</sup></a> Garden ornaments and children's picture books depicting <a href="/facts/Gnome/fEw953z6">gnomes</a> and <a href="/facts/Fairy/P5ca3mNx">fairies</a>, such as the <a href="/facts/Smurf/fP2hJvDJ">Smurfs</a>, often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178"><sup>178</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179"><sup>179</sup></a> Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the <a href="/facts/Renaissance/4D9Bc6KU">Renaissance</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180"><sup>180</sup></a> albeit in a subtle manner. For instance, in <a href="/facts/Hieronymus_Bosch/lVgJPch3">Hieronymus Bosch</a>'s painting, <i><a href="/facts/The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights/YUbPr5L2">The Garden of Earthly Delights</a></i>, the mushroom can be seen on the left-hand panel of the work.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181"><sup>181</sup></a> In the <a href="/facts/Victorian_era/HQxGp7wh">Victorian era</a> they became more visible, becoming the main topic of some <a href="/facts/Fairy_painting/KAorBbyG">fairy paintings</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182"><sup>182</sup></a> Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the <i><a href="/facts/Mario_(franchise)/2Y2me64x">Mario</a></i> franchise (specifically two of the <a href="/facts/Super_Mario/NBH5SHu2">Super Mushroom</a> power-up items and the platforms in several stages which are based on a fly agaric),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183"><sup>183</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184"><sup>184</sup></a> and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film <i><a href="/facts/Fantasia_(1940_film)/tE8lKae9">Fantasia</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185"><sup>185</sup></a> </p><p>An account of the journeys of <a href="/facts/Philip_Johan_von_Strahlenberg/f2LPGPRN">Philip von Strahlenberg</a> to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the <i>mukhomor</i> there was published in English in 1736. The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo-Irish writer <a href="/facts/Oliver_Goldsmith/g5IerStu">Oliver Goldsmith</a> in his widely read 1762 novel, <i>Citizen of the World</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186"><sup>186</sup></a> The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187"><sup>187</sup></a> Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus, including naturalist <a href="/facts/Mordecai_Cubitt_Cooke/rwUPynPc">Mordecai Cubitt Cooke</a> in his books <i>The Seven Sisters of Sleep</i> and <i>A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188"><sup>188</sup></a> This observation is thought to have formed the basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story <i><a href="/facts/Alice%2527s_Adventures_in_Wonderland/xIcypuRd">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189"><sup>189</sup></a> A hallucinogenic "scarlet toadstool" from Lappland is featured as a plot element in <a href="/facts/Charles_Kingsley/mMeS0zv6">Charles Kingsley</a>'s 1866 novel <i><a href="/facts/Hereward_the_Wake_(novel)/0SyB20qo">Hereward the Wake</a></i> based on the <a href="/facts/Hereward_the_Wake/l3WqWree">medieval figure</a> of the same name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190"><sup>190</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Thomas_Pynchon/EbJhc8dS">Thomas Pynchon</a>'s 1973 novel <i><a href="/facts/Gravity%2527s_Rainbow/EG7R3y3b">Gravity's Rainbow</a></i> describes the fungus as a "relative of the poisonous <a href="/facts/Destroying_angel/2w6JPwAh">Destroying angel</a>" and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a cookie bake mixture from harvested <i>Amanita muscaria</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191"><sup>191</sup></a> Fly agaric shamanism—in the context of a surviving <a href="/facts/Dionysus/4kBSl2Kp">Dionysian</a> cult in the <a href="/facts/Peak_District/VFeFWX47">Peak District</a>—is also explored in the 2003 novel <i><a href="/facts/Thursbitch/FCQtjo1N">Thursbitch</a></i> by <a href="/facts/Alan_Garner/LR0Bqlvc">Alan Garner</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192"><sup>192</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Fungi portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_Amanita_species/Hxr83PMU">List of <i>Amanita</i> species</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Legal_status_of_psychoactive_Amanita_mushrooms/5obVbTpu">Legal status of psychoactive <i>Amanita</i> mushrooms</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mushroom_edible/vF5sQHpB">Mushroom edible</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Psychedelic_mushroom_store/lW5pcrCt">Psychedelic mushroom store</a></li></ul> <h3>Works cited</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/John_Allegro/1MY7Az5x">Allegro, John</a> (2009). <i>The sacred mushroom and the cross</i> (40th anniversary ed.). Crestline, CA: Gnostic Media. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-9825562-7-6.</li> <li><a href="/facts/David_Arora/Iwu9RXPl">Arora, David</a> (1986). <a href="https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0"><i>Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi</i></a> (2nd ed.). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-89815-169-5.</li> <li>Benjamin, Denis R. (1995). <i>Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas—a handbook for naturalists, mycologists and physicians</i>. New York: WH Freeman and Company. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7167-2600-5.</li> <li>Feeney, Kevin M. (2020). <i>Fly Agaric: A Compendium of History, Pharmacology, Mythology, & Exploration</i>. Fly Agaric Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-578-71442-4.</li> <li>Flattery, David Stophlet; Schwartz, Martin (1989). <i>Haoma and Harmaline: The Botanical Identity of the Indo-Iranian Sacred Hallucinogen 'soma' and Its Legacy in Religion, Language, and Middle-Eastern Folklore</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-520-09627-1.</li> <li>Furst, Peter T. (1976). <i>Hallucinogens and Culture</i>. Chandler & Sharp. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-88316-517-1.</li> <li>Letcher, Andy (2006). <i>Shroom: A Cultural history of the magic mushroom</i>. London: Faber and Faber. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-571-22770-9.</li> <li>Ramsbottom, John (1989). <i>Mushrooms and Toadstools</i>. Penguin. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-870630-09-2.</li> <li>Wasson, R. Gordon (1968). <i>Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality</i>. Harcourt Brace Jovanovick. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-88316-517-1.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amanita muscaria. <a href="/facts/Wikispecies/b2GhA7Le">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i>Amanita muscaria</i>. <ul><li><a href="http://www.amanitaceae.org/">Webpages on <i>Amanita species</i></a> by Tulloss and Yang Zhuliang</li> <li><a href="http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/fungi/pimg026.htm">Aminita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and others (Group PIM G026)</a> by <a href="/facts/IPCS_INCHEM/akeICBlP">IPCS INCHEM</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/">Amanita - Erowid</a></li> <li><a href="https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria">Amanita muscaria - PsychonautWiki</a></li> <li><a href="https://tripsitter.com/amanita-muscaria/">Amanita Muscaria: Fly Agaric — The Psychedelic “Mario” Mushroom 🍄 - Tripsitter</a></li> <li><a href="https://doubleblindmag.com/amanita-muscaria/">The Trippy Truth About Amanita muscaria, The World’s Most Famous Mushroom - Double Blind Magazine</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Wasson 1968, p. 198. - Wasson, R. Gordon (1968). Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality. Harcourt Brace Jovanovick. ISBN 978-0-88316-517-1. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Magnus A. (1256). "Book II, Chapter 6; p. 87 and Book VI, Chapter 7; p. 345". De vegetabilibus. <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" target="_blank">/wiki/Albertus_Magnus</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Ramsbottom 1989, p. 44. - Ramsbottom, John (1989). Mushrooms and Toadstools. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-870630-09-2. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Clusius C. (1601). "Genus XII of the pernicious mushrooms". Rariorum plantarum historia. <a href="/wiki/Carolus_Clusius" target="_blank">/wiki/Carolus_Clusius</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Linnaeus C. (1745). Flora svecica [suecica] exhibens plantas per regnum Sueciae crescentes systematice cum differentiis specierum, synonymis autorum, nominibus incolarum, solo locorum, usu pharmacopæorum (in Latin). Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" target="_blank">/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Linnaeus C (1753). "Tomus II". Species Plantarum (in Latin). Vol. 2. Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii. p. 1172. <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/359193" target="_blank">https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/359193</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Simpson DP (1979). Cassell's Latin dictionary (5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN 978-0-304-52257-6. <a href="978-0-304-52257-6" target="_blank">978-0-304-52257-6</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Hawksworth, David L. (2001). "The Naming of Fungi". 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